2. Unit 0: Observation, Measurement and Calculations Cartoon courtesy of NearingZero.net

3. Introduction to Science Language of Science – Prefix, Suffix, Root Words

4. The Scientific Method

5. Steps in the Scientific Method 1. Observations - quantitative – numbers & units - qualitative - descriptive 2.Formulating hypotheses - possible explanation for the observation 3.Performing experiments - gathering new information to decide whether the hypothesis is valid

6. Steps in the Scientific Method 4. Collect and organize data - tables & charts - graphs – circle, line, bar 5.Analyze & Evaluate data - record what happened during experiment 6.Conclusion - was your hypothesis correct

7. Outcomes Over the Long-Term Theory (Model)Theory (Model) - A set of tested hypotheses that give an overall explanation of some natural phenomenon. overall explanation of some natural phenomenon. Natural LawNatural Law - The same observation applies to many different systems different systems - Example - Law of Conservation of Mass- Example - Law of Conservation of Mass

8. Law vs. Theory A law summarizes what happens  A law summarizes what happens  A theory (model) is an attempt to explain why it happens.

9. Terms to Know for Experimentation 1. Control - used to show that the result of an experiment is really due to the condition being tested 2. Variable - factor that changes in an experiment - factor that changes in an experiment - Independent variable – the variable you purposely change - Independent variable – the variable you purposely change - Dependent variable – the result from changing the independent variable. - Dependent variable – the result from changing the independent variable.

10. Terms to Know for Experimentation 3.Graphing - organizes data - line graph – compares one variable to another - line graph – compares one variable to another - bar graph – compares two or more items to another variable - bar graph – compares two or more items to another variable - circle or pie graph – breaks down a whole into parts - circle or pie graph – breaks down a whole into parts - interpolation – connecting missing information between two points on a graph - interpolation – connecting missing information between two points on a graph - extrapolation – extending information on a graph from what is known and predicting what would happen if it is continued based on pattern represented - extrapolation – extending information on a graph from what is known and predicting what would happen if it is continued based on pattern represented

11. Graphing Three (3) Most Commonly Used Types of graphs

12. Types of Graphs Line Graph – shows the relationship between 2 variables Dependent Variable Independent Variable

13. Types of Graphs Bar Graph – shows information collected by counting, compares more than one on the same graph

14. Types of Graphs Pie Graph (Circle Graph) – shows distribution of parts within a whole quantity

15. Terms to Know for Experimentation 4. Directly proportional – one variable goes up, the other variable goes up the same amount. 5. Inversely proportional – one variable goes up, the other variable goes down.

16. Distributed Summarizing How do we use the scientific method in our lives every day? What is the purpose of the scientific method? Why do scientists communicate with each other?

17. Guided & Independent Practice Scientific Method Worksheet pg 1 PS Hypothesizing: Ob-scertainer Activity Identifying Variables Worksheet Simpsons ID Controls & Variables Graphing Worksheets – 3 pages

18. Lab Safety

19. 4. Lab Safety Contract – covers most rules and procedures for lab activities and experiments 5. Lab Safety Symbols – precautions for experiments on papers and chemicals, etc. 6. Lab Safety Equipment – to be used during experiments, goggles, fire extinguisher, aprons 7. Lab Equipment – instruments used during lab activities and experiments. You must use them properly in order to obtain viable & reliable data.

20. Distributed Summarizing Why are lab safety rules enforced? What information can a lab safety symbol give you? Why must you wear the proper protection equipment in the lab? Why must you use the equipment properly in lab?

21. Guided & Independent Practice Lab Safety Contract Lab Safety Symbols Worksheet Safety in the Lab Worksheet pg 2 PS What’s Wrong with this Picture? Lab Accident @ Jefferson High VQ Mock Fire Drill Lab Safety Symbol Quiz Tomorrow

22. Lab Equipment

23. Beaker Beakers hold solids or liquids that will not release gases when reacted or are unlikely to splatter if stirred or heated.

24. Erlenmeyer Flask Erlenmeyer flasks hold solids or liquids that may release gases during a reaction or that are likely to splatter if stirred or heated.

25. Graduated Cylinder A graduated cylinder is used to measure volumes of liquids.

26. Test Tubes 13 x 100 mm test tubes 10 x 75 mm test tubes Ignitiontube

27. Test Tube Holder A test tube holder is useful for holding a test tube which is too hot to handle.

28. Test Tube Brushes Test tube brushes are used to clean test tubes and graduated cylinders. Forcing a large brush into a small test tube will often break the tube.

29. Rubber Stoppers Rubber stoppers are used to close containers to avoid spillage or contamination. Containers should never be heated when there is a stopper in place.

30. Spot Plates Spot plates are used when we want to perform many small scale reactions at one time. We will use these many times during the year.

31. Watch Glass A watch glass is used to hold a small amount of solid, such as the product of a reaction.

32. Glass Stir Rod A glass rod is used to manually stir solutions. It can also be used to transfer a single drop of a solution.

33. Medicine Dropper A medicine dropper is used to transfer a small volume of liquid (less than one mL). On top of each medicine dropper is a “rubber bulb”

34. Litmus Paper Red litmus paper is used to identify bases. Blue litmus paper is used to identify acids.

35. Forceps Forceps (or tweezers) are used to pick up small objects.

36. Funnel A funnel is used to aid in the transfer of liquid from one vessel to another.

37. Wash Bottle A wash bottle has a spout that delivers a wash solution to a specific area. Distilled water is the only liquid that should be used in a wash bottle.

38. Weighing Boat Weighing boats are used to weigh solids that will be transferred to another vessel.

39. Spatulas Spatulas are used to dispense solid chemicals from their containers. Chemicals should never be transferred with your bare hands.

40. Beaker Tongs Beaker tongs are used to move beakers containing hot liquids

41. Bunsen Burner Bunsen burners are used for the heating of nonvolatile liquids and solids.

42. Evaporating Dish The evaporating dish is used for the heating of stable solid compounds and elements.

43. Crucible Crucibles are used for heating certain solids, particularly metals, to very high temperatures.

44. Clay Triangle The clay triangle is used as a support for porcelein crucibles when being heated over a Bunsen burner.

45. Crucible Tongs For handling hot crucibles; also used to pick up other hot objects. NOT to be used for picking up beakers!

46. Glass Plates Glass plates provide a surface for semi-micro scale experiments, such as drop reactions and testing of acids and bases.

47. Triangular File Triangular files are used primarily to cut glass rod, a skill that your instructor will share with you when it becomes useful.

48. Ringstands and their Components Ringstands are a safe and convenient way to perform reactions that require heating using a Bunsen burner.

49. Ringstands and their Components Iron Rings Iron rings connect to a ringstand and provide a stable, elevated platform for the reaction.

50. Ringstands and their Components Utility Clamps Utility clamps are used to secure test tubes, distillation columns, and burets to the ringstand.

51. Ringstands and their Components Wire Gauze Wire gauze sits on the iron ring to provide a place to stand a beaker. On older wire gauze, the white material is asbestos!

52. Strikers Strikers are used to light Bunsen burners. The flints on strikers are expensive. Do not operate the striker repeatedly just to see the sparks!

53. Distributed Summarizing Why do we need lab equipment? If your lab partner is misusing lab equipment, what should you do? (give many examples). What happens if you destroy or tear up a piece of lab equipment?

54. Guided & Independent Practice Laboratory Equipment wkshts pg 3 PS, pg 2 Chemistry

55. Scientific Notation

56. In science, we deal with some very LARGE numbers: 1 mole = 602000000000000000000000 In science, we deal with some very SMALL numbers: Mass of an electron = 0.000000000000000000000000000000091 kg Scientific Notation

57. Imagine the difficulty of calculating the mass of 1 mole of electrons! 0.000000000000000000000000000000091 kg x 602000000000000000000000 x 602000000000000000000000 ???????????????????????????????????

58. Scientific Notation: A method of representing very large or very small numbers in the form: M x 10 n M x 10 n  M is a number between 1 and 10  n is an integer

59. 2 500 000 000 Step #1: Insert an understood decimal point. Step #2: Decide where the decimal must end up so that one number is to its left up so that one number is to its left Step #3: Count how many places you bounce the decimal point the decimal point 1234567 8 9 Step #4: Re-write in the form M x 10 n

60. 2.5 x 10 9 The exponent is the number of places we moved the decimal.

61. 0.0000579 Step #2: Decide where the decimal must end up so that one number is to its left up so that one number is to its left Step #3: Count how many places you bounce the decimal point the decimal point Step #4: Re-write in the form M x 10 n 12345

62. 5.79 x 10 -5 The exponent is negative because the number we started with was less than 1.

63. Review: Scientific notation expresses a number in the form: M x 10 n 1  M  10 n is an integer

64. Distributed Summarizing How is scientific notation useful to us? How do we display quantities in scientific notation?

65. Guided & Independent Practice Scientific Notation wksht pg 8 Chemistry

66. Measurements

67. Metric System Metric System Graphic Organizer – do together as a class.

68. Nature of Measurement Part 1 - number Part 2 - scale (unit) Examples: 20 grams 6.63 x 10 -34 Joule seconds Measurement - quantitative observation consisting of 2 parts consisting of 2 parts

69. The Fundamental SI Units (le Système International, SI)

70. SI Units

71. SI Prefixes Common to Science PrefixUnit Abbr.Exponent Kilok10 3 Decid10 -1 Centic10 -2 Millim10 -3 Micro  10 -6

72. Uncertainty in Measurement A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain. A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.

73. Why Is there Uncertainty?  Measurements are performed with instruments  No instrument can read to an infinite number of decimal places Which of these balances has the greatest uncertainty in measurement?

74. Precision and Accuracy Accuracy refers to the agreement of a particular value with the true value. Precision refers to the degree of agreement among several measurements made in the same manner. Neither accurate nor precise Precise but not accurate Precise AND accurate

75. Significant Figures

76. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details Nonzero integers always count as significant figures. 3456 has 4 sig figs.

77. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details ZerosZeros - Leading zeros do not count as significant figures. 0.0486 has0.0486 has 3 sig figs.

78. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details ZerosZeros - Captive zeros always count as significant figures. 16.07 has 4 sig figs.

79. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details ZerosZeros Trailing zeros are significant only if the number contains a decimal point. 9.300 has 4 sig figs.

80. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures. 1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly

81. Sig Fig Practice #1 How many significant figures in each of the following? 1.0070 m  5 sig figs 17.10 kg  4 sig figs 100,890 L  5 sig figs 3.29 x 10 3 s  3 sig figs 0.0054 cm  2 sig figs 3,200,000  2 sig figs

82. Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations Multiplication and Division: # sig figs in the result equals the number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation. 6.38 x 2.0 = 12.76  13 (2 sig figs)

83. Sig Fig Practice #2 3.24 m x 7.0 m CalculationCalculator says:Answer 22.68 m 2 23 m 2 100.0 g ÷ 23.7 cm 3 4.219409283 g/cm 3 4.22 g/cm 3 0.02 cm x 2.371 cm 0.04742 cm 2 0.05 cm 2 710 m ÷ 3.0 s 236.6666667 m/s240 m/s 1818.2 lb x 3.23 ft5872.786 lb·ft 5870 lb·ft 1.030 g ÷ 2.87 mL 2.9561 g/mL2.96 g/mL

84. Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations Addition and Subtraction: The number of decimal places in the result equals the number of decimal places in the least precise measurement.Addition and Subtraction: The number of decimal places in the result equals the number of decimal places in the least precise measurement. 6.8 + 11.934 = 18.734  18.7 (3 sig figs)

85. Sig Fig Practice #3 3.24 m + 7.0 m CalculationCalculator says:Answer 10.24 m 10.2 m 100.0 g - 23.73 g 76.27 g 76.3 g 0.02 cm + 2.371 cm 2.391 cm 2.39 cm 713.1 L - 3.872 L 709.228 L709.2 L 1818.2 lb + 3.37 lb1821.57 lb 1821.6 lb 2.030 mL - 1.870 mL 0.16 mL 0.160 mL

86. Distributed Summarizing How do we use the metric system? Explain the differences between accuracy and precision. Why is the metric system useful? Why are significant figures important?

87. Guided & Independent Practice Measuring Length wksht pg 5 PS. Significant Figures wksht pg 9 Chemistry

88. Measuring

89. Measuring  Volume  Temperature  Mass

90. Reading the Meniscus Always read volume from the bottom of the meniscus. The meniscus is the curved surface of a liquid in a narrow cylindrical container.

91. Try to avoid parallax errors. Parallax errors arise when a meniscus or needle is viewed from an angle rather than from straight-on at eye level. Correct: Viewing the meniscus at eye level Incorrect: viewing the meniscus from an angle

92. Graduated Cylinders The glass cylinder has etched marks to indicate volumes, a pouring lip, and quite often, a plastic bumper to prevent breakage.

93. Measuring Volume  Determine the volume contained in a graduated cylinder by reading the bottom of the meniscus at eye level.  Read the volume using all certain digits.  Certain digits are determined from the calibration marks on the cylinder.  The uncertain digit (the last digit of the reading) is estimated. We will not use this.

94. Use the graduations to find all certain digits There are two unlabeled graduations below the meniscus, and each graduation represents 1 mL, so the certain digits of the reading are… 52 mL.

95. Estimate the uncertain digit and take a reading The meniscus is about eight tenths of the way to the next graduation, so the final digit in the reading is. The volume in the graduated cylinder is 0.8 mL 52.8 mL.

96. 10 mL Graduate What is the volume of liquid in the graduate? _. _ mL 66

97. 25mL graduated cylinder What is the volume of liquid in the graduate? _ _ mL 11

98. 100mL graduated cylinder What is the volume of liquid in the graduate? _ _ mL 52

99. The Thermometer o Determine the temperature by reading the scale on the thermometer at eye level. o Read the temperature by using all certain digits. o Certain digits are determined from the calibration marks on the thermometer. o On most thermometers encountered in a general chemistry lab, the tenths place is the uncertain digit.

100. Do not allow the tip to touch the walls or the bottom of the flask. If the thermometer bulb touches the flask, the temperature of the glass will be measured instead of the temperature of the solution. Readings may be incorrect, particularly if the flask is on a hotplate or in an ice bath.

101. Reading the Thermometer Determine the readings as shown below on Celsius thermometers: _ _  C 8735

102. Measuring Mass - Measuring Mass - The Beam Balance Our balances have 3 & 4 beams. Read it like money. Line up decimals to add final masses.

103. Balance Rules In order to protect the balances and ensure accurate results, a number of rules should be followed:  Always check that the balance is level and zeroed before using it.  Never weigh directly on the balance pan. Always use a piece of weighing paper to protect it.  Do not weigh hot or cold objects.  Clean up any spills around the balance immediately.

104. Mass and Significant Figures o Determine the mass by reading the riders on the beams at eye level. o Read the mass by using all certain digits.

105. Determining Mass 1. Place object on pan 2. Move riders along beam, starting with the largest, until the pointer is at the zero mark

106. Check to see that the balance scale is at zero

107. Read Mass _ _ _. _ _ 114?

108. Read Mass More Closely _ _ _. _ _ 11449

109. Distributed Summarizing Why is learning to read measurement equipment important? What are some reasons for incorrect measurements? When should you use significant figures in science class? Why should you use significant figures in science class?

110. Guided & Independent Practice Using the Balance wksht pg 4 PS The Triple & Four Beam Balances wksht pg 3 Chemistry Measuring Liquids wksht pg 6 PS Reading Thermometers wksht pg 7 PS

111. The Compound Microscope

112. Introduction to the Microscope  Care  Parts  Focusing

113. Always carry with 2 hands Only use lens paper for cleaning Do not force knobs Always store covered Keep objects clear of desk and cords

114. Eyepiece Body Tube Revolving Nosepiece Arm Objective Lens Stage Stage Clips Coarse Focus Fine Focus Base Diaphragm Light

115. Place the Slide on the Microscope Use Stage Clips Click Nosepiece to the lowest (shortest) setting Look into the Eyepiece Use the Coarse Focus

116. Follow steps to focus using low power Click the nosepiece to the longest objective Do NOT use the Coarse Focusing Knob Use the Fine Focus Knob to bring the slide

117. ArmEyepiece BaseNosepiece StageBody Tube Stage ClipLight (Light Source) DiaphragmLow Power Lens Coarse AdjustmentMedium Power Lens Fine AdjustmentHigh Power Lens

118. Distributed Summarizing Describe the proper way to carry a microscope. Why should you never use the coarse adjustment knob on medium or high power? How do you determine the magnification of a microscope? What is the maximum magnification of our compound light microscopes?

119. Guided & Independent Practice The Compound Microscope Worksheet pg 6 Biology Parts of a Microscope Coloring Sheet & Questions Labeling the Compound Microscope Quiz tomorrow.

120. Unit Conversions & The Factor Label Method

121. The factor label method A way to solve math problems in chemistry Used to convert km to miles, m to km, mol to g, g to mol, etc. To use this we need: 1) desired quantity, 2) given quantity, 3) conversion factors Conversion factors are valid relationships or equities expressed as a fraction E.g. for 1 km=0.6 miles the conversion factor is Q. write conversion factors for 1 foot =12 inches Q. what conversion factors can you think of that involve meters?

122. Conversion factors Conversion factors for 1 ft = 12 in There are almost an infinite number of conversion factors that include meters:

123. Conversion factors We have looked at conversion factors that are always true. There are conversion factors that are only true for specific questions E.g. A recipe calls for 2 eggs, 1 cup of flour and 0.5 cups of sugar We can use these conversion factors Q - the chemical equation between H 2 and O 2 involves 2 H 2 molecules combining with 1 O 2 molecule to make 2 H 2 O molecules. Write all possible conversion factors

124. The steps to follow Now we are ready to solve problems using the factor label method. The steps involved are: 1.Write down the desired quantity/units 2.Equate the desired quantity to given quantity 3.Determine what conversion factors you can use (both universal and question specific) 4.Multiply given quantity by the appropriate conversion factors to eliminate units you don’t want and leave units you do want 5.Complete the math

125. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) First write down the desired quantity # km

126. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Next, equate desired quantity to the given quantity # km= 47 mi

127. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Now we have to choose a conversion factor # km= 47 mi

128. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) What conversion factors are possible? # km= 47 mi 1 km 0.621 mi 1 km

129. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Pick the one that will allow you to cancel out miles # km= 47 mi 1 km 0.621 mi 1 km

130. Pick the one that will allow you to cancel out miles Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) # km= 47 mi 1 km 0.621 mi 1 km

131. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Multiply given quantity by chosen conversion factor # km= 47 mi 1 km 0.621 mi 1 km

132. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Multiply given quantity by chosen conversion factor # km= 47 mi x 1 km 0.621 mi

133. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Cross out common factors # km= 47 mi x 1 km 0.621 mi

134. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Cross out common factors # km= 47 x 1 km 0.621

135. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Are the units now correct? # km= 47 x 1 km 0.621

136. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Yes. Both sides have km as units. # km= 47 x 1 km 0.621

137. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Yes. Both sides have km as units. # km# km = 47 x 1 km 0.621 # km

138. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) Now finish the math. # km= 47 x 1 km 0.621 = 75.7 km

139. Factor label example Q - How many kilometers are in 47 miles? (note: 1 km = 0.621 miles) The final answer is 75.7 km # km= 47 x 1 km 0.621 = 75.7 km

140. Summary The previous problem was not that hard In other words, you probably could have done it faster using a different method However, for harder problems the factor label method is easiest

141. More examples 1.You want to buy 100 U.S. dollars. If the exchange rate is 1 Can$ = 0.65 US$, how much will it cost? # Can$= 100 US$x 1 Can$ 0.65 US$ = 153.85 Can$ 2.One mole of a gas has a volume of 22.4 L. How many L will 300 grams of CO 2 occupy? (hint: the molar mass of CO 2 is ____ g/mol). # L CO 2 = 300 g CO 2 x 1 mol CO 2 44.01 g CO 2 = 152.7 L CO 2 x 22.4 L CO 2 1 mol CO 2 44.01

142. More examples 3.There are 12 inches in a foot, 0.394 inches in a centimeter, and 3 feet in a yard. How many cm are in one yard? # cm= 1 ydx 3 ft 1 yd = 91.37 cm x 12 in 1 ft x 1 cm 0.394 in 4.A chemical reaction requires 3.000 moles of sodium chloride. How many grams is this? #g NaCl = 3.000 mol NaClx 58.44 g NaCl 1 mol NaCl = 175.3 g NaCl Sodium chloride is NaCl (58.44 g/mol)

143. # ft= 1 mx 100 cm 1 m = 3.28 ft x 0.394 in 1 cm x 1 ft 12 in Answer questions using the factor label method: 1.Calculate how many feet are in 1 meter (use information from the examples above). Assignment

144. Distributed Summarizing Why do we need to convert units when measuring in science? What purpose to standards of measurement serve? How do you use the factor-label method in every day life?

145. Guided & Independent Practice Metrics & Measurement wksht pg 7 Chemistry Unit Conversions & Factor-Label Method wksht pg 9 PS Metric System Cryptogram Metric Mania Conversion Challenge (if time permits)

146. Laboratory Experiments & Activities Scientific Method Gummy Bear Lab How to Use the Scientific Method with Sponge Animals & Graphing Lab What Color Are Your M&Ms? Lab

147. Unit Test Review all Concepts and Worksheets, Labs, etc. so far. Information will be taken from each worksheet and safety video for this unit test. Do NOT wait until the last minute to study for this test!!! Good Luck!!!

148. Parts of Power Point compliments of www.sciencegeek.net