1. What is a review? An article which looks at a question or subject and seeks to summarise and bring together evidence on a health topic.

2. Objectives of session Know what is special about a systematic review know what meta-analysis is have a check list for looking at systematic reviews

3. What is a systematic review? In a review a question must be posed, a target population of information sources identified and accessed, appropriate information obtained from that population in an unbiased fashion, and conclusions derived. the methodology will be explicit and reproducible.

4. check list of data sources medline cochrane other medical and paramedical databases foreign language literature Grey literature.(theses, internal reports, non- peer reviewed journals, pharmaceutical industry files references other unpublished sources raw data from published trials

5. Why bother with systematic reviews? To reduce large volumes of information to bite size pieces. To allow decision makers to integrate critical pieces of biomedical information. An efficient scientific technique which is often less costly than embarking on new research. The generalisability of scientific findings can be established.

6. Why bother with systematic reviews? To assess the consistency of relationships. To explain data inconsistencies and conflicts in data. Increased power. Increased precision in estimates of effect. To reduce random and systematic errors.

7. What on earth is Meta-analysis? A systematic review where there is statistical analysis of data from the trials included in the review.

8. What can go wrong with a systematic review? Problem formulation Is the question clearly focused? Study identification Is the search for relevant studies thorough? Study selection Are the inclusion criteria appropriate?

9. What can go wrong with a systematic review? Appraisal of studies Is the validity of included studies adequately assessed? Data collection Is missing information obtained from investigators? Data synthesis How sensitive are the results to changes in the way the review is done?

10. What can go wrong with a systematic review? Interpretation of results Do the conclusions flow from the evidence that is reviewed? Are recommendations linked to the strength of the evidence? Are judgements about preferences (values attached to different outcomes) explicit? If there is "no evidence of effect" is caution taken not to interpret this as "evidence of no effect"? Are subgroup analyses interpreted cautiously?

11. Levels of evidence for treatment Level I The lower limit of the confidence interval for the effect of treatment from a systematic review of randomised controlled trials exceeded the clinically significant benefit. Level II The lower limit of the confidence interval for the effect of treatment from a systematic review of randomised controlled trials fell below the clinically significant benefit (but the point estimate of its effect was at or above the clinically significant benefit) Level III Non-randomised concurrent cohort studies Level IV Non-randomised historical cohort studies Level V Case series

12. The Hierarchy of Evidence Systematic reviews and meta-analyses Randomised controlled trials with definite results Randomised controlled trials with non- definite results Cohort Studies Case control studies Cross sectional surveys Case reports