1. Exchange Rate Determination
Rashedul Hasan

2. Measuring Exchange Rate Movement
Exchange rate movement affect an MNC’s value because they can affect the amount of cash inflows received from exporting or from subsidiary, and the amount of cash outflows needed to pay for imports. An exchange rate measures the value of one currency in unit of another currency.

3. As economic condition changes, exchange rate can change substantially
As economic condition changes, exchange rate can change substantially. A decline in a currency value referred to as depreciation. When the British Pound depreciates against the U.S. dollar, this means that the U.S. dollar is strengthening relative to the pound.
The increase in a currency value is often referred to as appreciation.

4. The percentage change (% )) in the value of a foreign currency is computed as
St – St-1
St-1
where
St denotes the spot rate at recent date.
St-1 denotes the spot rate at time t.
A positive % represents appreciation of the foreign currency, while a negative %  represents depreciation.

5. Exchange Rate Equilibrium
An exchange rate represents the price of a currency, which is determined by the demand for that currency relative to the supply for that currency.
Value of £
Quantity of £
D: Demand for £
$1.55
$1.50
$1.60
S: Supply of £
equilibrium exchange rate

6. Factors that influence Exchange Rate
The equlibrium exchange rate will change over time as supply and demand schedules change. The factors that cause currency supply and demand schedules to change are disscussed bellow.
The following equation summarize the factors that can influence a currency’s spot rate
e = f (  INF,  INT,  INC,  GC  EXP)

7. where,
e = % change in spot rate
 INF = change in the differential between U.S. inflation and the foreign country’s inflation
 INT = change in the differential between U.S. interest rate and the foreign country’s interest rate
 INC = change in the differential between U.S.income level and the foreign country’s income level
 GC = change in Government control
 EXP = change in expectations of future exchange rate

8. Factors that Influence Exchange Rates
Relative Inflation Rates
U.S. inflation 
 U.S. demand for British goods, and hence £.
$/£
Quantity of £ S0 D0 r0 S1 D1 r1
 British desire for U.S. goods, and hence the supply of £.

9. Relative Inflation Rates
If the U.S. Inflation suddenly increased while British inflation remained same. The sudden jump in U.S. inflation should cause an increase in the U.S. demand for British goods and therefore also cause an incease in the U.S. demand for British Pounds. On the other hand, the jump in U.S. inflation should reduce the British desire for U.S. goods and therefore reduce the supply of pounds for sale.

10. Factors that Influence Exchange Rates
Relative Interest Rates
U.S. interest rates 
 U.S. demand for British bank deposits, and hence £.
$/£
Quantity of £ r0 S0 D0 S1 D1 r1
 British desire for U.S. bank deposits, and hence the supply of £.

11. Relative Interest Rates
If the U.S. interest rates rise while British interest rates remain constant, the U.S. investors will likely reduce their demand for pounds, since U.S. rate are now more attractive and there is less desire for British bank deposit. Moreover the U.S. rates will now look more attractive to British investors with excess cash. The supply of pound for sale by British investors should increase as they establish more bank deposits in the U.S. due to an inward shift in the demand for pound and outward shift in the supply of pound for sale, the equlibrium exchange rate should be decreased.

12. Relative Interest Rates
A relatively high interest rate may actually reflect expectations of relatively high inflation. Because high inflation can place downward pressure on the local currency, which discourages foreign investment.
It is thus useful to consider real interest rates, which adjust the nominal interest rates for inflation. 
Real Interest rate = Nominasl interest rate – Inflation rate
This relationship is sometimes called the Fisher effect.

13. Factors that Influence Exchange Rates
Relative Income Levels
U.S. income level 
 U.S. demand for British goods, and hence £.
$/£
Quantity of £ S0 D0 r0 D1
,S1 r1
No expected change for the supply of £.

14. Relative Income Level
If the U.S. income level rises substantially while the British income level remain unchanged, the impact of that situation will as follows,
The demand schedule for pounds will shift outwards as the demand for British goods will increase
The equilibrium exchange rate of the pound is expected to rise.

15. Government Controls
Governments may influence the equilibrium exchange rate by:
imposing foreign exchange barriers,
imposing foreign trade barriers,
intervening in the foreign exchange market, and
affecting macro variables such as inflation, interest rates, and income levels.

16. Expectations
A fifth factor affecting exchange rate is market expectations of future exchange rate. Like other financial market,
Foreign exchange markets react to any news that may have a future effect.
Institutional investors such as, Commercial Bank, Insurance Company etc. often take currency positions based on anticipated interest rate movements in various countries.

17. How Factors Can Affect Exchange Rates
Trade-Related
Factors
1. Inflation
Differential
2. Income
3. Gov’t Trade
Restrictions
Financial
1. Interest Rate
2. Capital Flow
U.S. demand for foreign goods, i.e. demand for foreign currency
Foreign demand for U.S. goods, i.e. supply of foreign currency
U.S. demand for foreign securities, i.e. demand for foreign currency
Foreign demand for U.S. securities, i.e. supply of foreign currency
Exchange rate between foreign currency and the dollar