1. METHODS OF PRODUCING POWER

2. Methods of Producing Power  Traditional Sources  Wind  Water  Steam Engine  Internal Combustion Engine  Mechanical Power and its Measurement

3. Windmills - History  John Smeaton - Metal (1740s)  Edmund Lee -Automatic Fantail (1745)  Not Used Till 1800s  Very Little change from 1650s to 1850s  Gears - Typically Wooden Till 1800s  Power - 40 hp (1650s)  Primarily Northern Europe

4. Revolving Cap - Hallette (1830)

5. Revolving Body - End 19th Century

6. Windmills - Research  Antoine Parent (early 1700s)  Force  Force on Sail Proportional to  Velocity of Wind Squared  Sine of Angle Wind Hits Sail Squared  Best Angle = 54 degrees  Bernoulli, MacLaurin, d’Alembert (Mid 1700s)  Included Rotation of Sail  Angle of Sail Varies with Rotation Speed  Euler & d’Alembert (Mid 1700s)  Shape of Sail

7. Windmill - Research (continued)  Smeaton (1750s)  Experimental  Torque  Force  Verified Findings of MacLaurin & Euler  Dutch  Flared Sails  Concave Shape & Warped Surface  Optimum Design Without Theory

8. Smeaton’s Experiments (1750s)

9. Windmills - 19th Century  Metal Construction  Panemonian Mills  Vertical Shaft - Cone Shaped Vanes  Less Power & Longer Operation Times  Aeolian Mills  Horizontal or Slightly Inclined Shaft  Metal Construction  Variable Angle of Attack  Delamolere - Centrifugal Governor  Varying Angle of Attack  Limited Speed of Rotation During High Winds

10. Self-Regulating Device (1830- 1840)

11. Pumps - Crank & Gear  Crank Fixed to Horizontal Shaft  Lift (Water) & Force (Air) Pumps  No Variation in Piston Displacement  Abandoned in Favor of Gears  La Hire Gear  Cogwheels & Crankshaft

12. Metal Windmill for Pumping Water (1830)

13. Wind Pump with La Hire Gear

14. Pumping Mechanism with Cogwheels and Crankshaft

15. Windmills - Modern History (Mid to Late 1900s)  Lightweight Materials  Precision Gearing  Precision Manufacturing  Highly Efficient Energy Conversion  Electrical Power Generation

16. Waterwheels - History  Horizontal Wheel - Greek  Oldest - For Speed  Vertical Wheel - Roman  Newer - For Power  England Became Leader (1800s)  John Smeaton  Powered Pre-Steam Industry  Types  Undershot, Breast, Overshot

17. Waterwheels - Research  Fluid Mechanics (1600s) Hydraulics (1700s)  Parent (Late 1600s)  Speed of Blades is 1/3 Speed of Water  Bernoulli (1727)  Pressure on Blades Proportional to Relative Velocity between Current and Blade Squared  Smeaton (1952 & 1953) & Bossut  Speed of Blades is 2/5 Speed of Water

18. Waterwheels - Research  Charles de Borda (1767)  Speed of Blades is 1/2 Speed of Water  Proportional to Speed of Water (Not Square)  Other Considerations  Diameter  Width to Depth of Blade  Spacing  Angle  Shape

19. Waterwheels - History  Undershot - Poncelet (1828)  Curved Vanes to Reduce Power Loss  Undershot - 30 % Efficient  Calculated Most Efficient Arrangement  Overshot  Required Large Gradient  Buckets Used Instead of Blades  Utilized Weight of Water & Momentum  Double the Efficiency of Undershot  Breast - Sagebien  Most Universal Design of Era

20. Breast Wheel (Early 19th Century)

21. Poncelet’s Wheel (1828)

22. Wooden Overshot Wheel (Early 19th Century)

23. Metal Overshot Wheel (1830s)

24. Sagebien’s Wheel (Middle of 19th Century)