1. Potential Risk of Acidification in South Asia Kevin Hicks Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) khicks@york.ac.uk

2. Describe European experience of acidification Explain acidification processes and consequences Illustrate the dynamics of acidification over time Describe methodologies that could be used to promote national efforts to assess risk of acidification damage in South Asia Aims

3. Transboundary impacts of air pollution

4. Salmon decline in the acidified waters of southern Norway The pH of lake Gårdsjön, SW Sweden Effects of ‘Acid Rain’ in Europe

5. The sensitivity of aquatic organisms to a lowered pH in freshwater

6. 85% of all acidified lakes and watercourses in Europe and North America are in six countries: Sweden, Norway, Canada, U.S.A., Scotland and Finland. Lake and river acidification in Europe In Europe, about 50 000 – 100 000 lakes have been affected by acidification This occurred in acid-sensitive regions where the soils have a low ability to neutralize continuous inputs of strong acids

7. Widespread forest decline in C Europe Forest damage in Germany

8. Forest Decline Forest decline experienced in many countries of central Europe and in eastern United States in the late 1970s and early 1980s The main air pollution hypotheses were: direct effects of gaseous pollutants and acidic rain, alone or in combination indirect effects via soil acidification (e.g. reduced availability of certain plant nutrients (Ca, Mg etc) and/or toxic effects of aluminium) excess availability of nitrogen (+ve and –ve effects)

9. Various factors contributing to forest decline

10. Evidence of Soil Acidification in Europe and southern China Soil acidification at Mt. Lu in southern China (Zhao, 1996) The decrease in soil pH between 1927 to 1982-83 in a beech and spruce forest in southern Sweden (Hallbäcken and Tamm, 1985).

11. Few studies on acidification Evidence of potential acidification of waters surrounding industry in India Studies of water catchments in Nepal – no strong acidification seen Critical Load approach applied to soils in India, showing no ‘exceedance’ There is a need to collate all available studies and data on acidification in South Asia Evidence of soil acidification in South Asia?

12. Some definitions of terms commonly used in soil acidification work Acidity is defined as: pH: -log [H + ] or [H + ] = 10 -pH pH 7 neutral [H + ] = [OH - ] >pH 7 alkaline <pH 7 acidic Examples pH 5.6 is value for pure water in equilibrium with atmospheric CO 2 pH of acid rain in Europe has been < pH 4 pH of rain in S Asia = 5.3 - 7.2 [H + ] in moles per litre

13. Acidity and ‘potential’ acidity of rain

14. Some definitions of terms commonly used in soil acidification work Weathering rate (WR ) - rate of buffering of acidity by the chemical weathering of soil minerals Cations – positively charged ions Base cations = Ca 2+, Mg 2+, Na +, K + Acid cations = H + Al 3+ Cation exchange capacity (CEC) – measure of the capacity of the soil to bind cations to soil particles Base saturation (%BS ) = sum of base cations/CEC

15. Soil acidification can be defined in different ways - Increase of soil acidity or decrease in soil pH - Decrease in base saturation - unbalanced availability of elements in the root environment - Decrease in the acid neutralising capacity (ANC) of the soil ANC (van Breemen et al. 1986) – the total capacity of a given soil to neutralize acidic inputs, includes all elements capable of neutralizing H + - means pH may stay the same while buffering capacity is consumed by added H +

16. Soil acidification is driven by an input of H + to the soil system Natural Acidifying processes - Decomposition of organic material - Mineral weathering and leaching - Dissolution of CO 2 (above pH 6) - Cation uptake by vegetation - Nitrogen fixation - Leaching Human induced Acidification - Acid producing fertilizers - Drainage of some coastal wetlands -Land use and harvest - Acid Deposition

17. Characteristics of soils susceptible to acidification: - Low soil depth - Low amount of weatherable minerals - low cation exchange capacity - Moderate pH - Low capacity to absorb sulphate - Located in regions with high deposition of acidic compounds

18. atmosphere vegetation soil groundwater The soil acidification process BC uptake H+H+ BC dep BC Weathering Rate H +, NO 3, SO 4 dep H +, Al 3+, NO 3, SO 4 leaching BC leaching NH 4 + dep NO 3 leaching Acid cations (e.g. H +, Al 3+) Base cations (Ca 2+, Na +, Mg 2+, K + ) Export to streams and lakes Soil exchange complex CEC BS

19. atmosphere vegetation soil groundwater The soil acidification process

20. atmosphere vegetation soil groundwater The soil acidification process

21. atmosphere vegetation soil groundwater The soil acidification process

22. atmosphere vegetation soil groundwater The soil acidification process Acid cations (e.g. H +, Al 3+) Base cations (Ca 2+, Na +, Mg 2+, K + ) Lower % BS and pH

23. The Role of CEC and Aluminium in Soil Acidification

24. Acid deposition (S, NOx and NHx) can increase acidity and reduce buffering capacity of soils The soil acidification process summary pH drops and toxic aluminium ions can be released into the soil (toxic to plants) and can be leached to streams and lakes (toxic to fish) Acidity of rain water, measured by pH, is one measure of acid rain inputs but not the whole story The ‘potential’ acidity is realeased if ammonium is transformed to nitrate in the soil and leached

25. Crucial Questions: What is the risk of soil acidification? What is the acidic input to the soil from atmosphere and vegetation growth? How much of the potential acidity in deposition is released? How well can the soil buffer the acidic inputs?

26. A Method to Assess Terrestrial Ecosystem Sensitivity to Acidic Deposition

27. Global Map of Terrestrial Ecosystem Sensitivity to Acidic Deposition Source: Kuylenstierna et al. 2001

28. Terrestrial Ecosystem Sensitivity to Acidic Deposition in South Asia Source: Kuylenstierna et al. 2001

29. Calculating Risk of Ecosystem Damage Using the Critical Load Approach

30. Acidic deposition in South Asia during 2001 using the MATCH model SulphurOxidized NitrogenAmmonium

31. Estimated Risk of acidification

32. Time Development of Acidification in the soils

33. 1.Sensitive soil type is chosen for which required data are available 2. The net annual acidifying input to the soil is calculated from: H + input = 2SO 4 2- dep + fNO 3 - dep + fNH 4 + dep + Vegetation uptake – 2Ca 2+ dep – WR where f is the proportion of N deposition that leaches from the soil (all values are calculated in meq/m 2 /yr) Estimating the time development of soil acidification damage

34. atmosphere vegetation soil groundwater The soil acidification process BC uptake H+H+ BC dep BC Weathering Rate H +, NO 3, SO 4 dep H +, Al 3+, NO 3, SO 4 leaching BC leaching NH 4 + dep NO 3 leaching Acid cations (e.g. H +, Al 3+) Base cations (Ca 2+, Na +, Mg 2+, K + ) Export to streams and lakes Soil exchange complex CEC BS

35. FAO Soil Map of the world for NE India Bhubaneswar Kolkata

36. Time development of acidification damage for an acrisol in NE India

37. Acidification in South Asia? 1.No evidence of acidification effects yet 2.Potential areas at risk: e.g. Western Ghats, NE India, Himalayas, Bangladesh, wet zone of Sri Lanka have sensitive soil types 3.Areas of high ammonium deposition may be especially at risk e.g. NE India 4.Whether acidification potential is realised or not depends on air pollution emission trends, soil properties and management

38. What actions can be taken? Soils potentially at risk in each country must be identified and: relevant soil parameters measured pollutant load and its origins determined fate of nitrogen deposition in soil plant system and leaching determined management of the site studied e.g litter removed?

39. Next steps in Malé process? 1.Research required at national level on sensitive soils 2.Manual will be distributed in near future through NIAs

40. In Europe extensive and expensive liming was carried out to maintain buffering capacity of ecosystems

41. Sida funded RAPIDC Programme For more information visit: WWW.RAPIDC.ORG

42. Chinese proverb: ‘A clever man learns from his mistakes…. ….a wise man learns from other people’s’