1. Unit 2-Solid Earth Introduction to Planet “Earth”

2. Formation of the Universe-Big Bang Theory

3. Big Bang

4. Formation of Solar System and Earth Nebular hypothesis Nebular hypothesis Nebula=cloud of gases and space dust Nebula=cloud of gases and space dust Mainly hydrogen and helium Mainly hydrogen and helium Gravity concentrates material at center of cloud (Sun) Gravity concentrates material at center of cloud (Sun) Protoplanets from smaller concentrations of matter (eddies) Protoplanets from smaller concentrations of matter (eddies)

9. Protoearth Larger than Earth today Larger than Earth today Homogeneous composition Homogeneous composition Bombarded by meteorites Bombarded by meteorites Moon formed from collision with large asteroid Moon formed from collision with large asteroid Heat from solar radiation Heat from solar radiation Initial atmosphere boiled away Initial atmosphere boiled away Ionized particles (solar wind) swept away nebular gases Ionized particles (solar wind) swept away nebular gases

11. Protoearth Radioactive heat Radioactive heat Spontaneous disintegration of atoms Spontaneous disintegration of atoms Heat from contraction (protoplanet shrinks due to gravity) Heat from contraction (protoplanet shrinks due to gravity) Protoearth partially melts Protoearth partially melts Density stratification (layered Earth) Density stratification (layered Earth)

12. Earth’s internal structure Highest density material at center (core) Highest density material at center (core) Lowest density material at surface (crust) Lowest density material at surface (crust) Earth layered Earth layered Chemical composition Chemical composition Physical properties Physical properties

14. Chemical composition Crust Crust Low-density, mainly silicate minerals Low-density, mainly silicate minerals Mantle Mantle Mainly Fe and Mg silicate minerals Mainly Fe and Mg silicate minerals Core Core High-density, mainly Fe and Ni High-density, mainly Fe and Ni

15. Layered Earth Fig. 1.14

16. Physical properties Lithosphere Lithosphere Asthenosphere Asthenosphere Mesosphere Mesosphere Outer core Outer core Inner core Inner core

17. Physical properties Lithosphere Lithosphere Cool, rigid, brittle Cool, rigid, brittle Surface to about 100 km (62 miles) Surface to about 100 km (62 miles) Asthenosphere Asthenosphere Warm, plastic, able to flow Warm, plastic, able to flow From 100 km to 700 km (430 miles) From 100 km to 700 km (430 miles)

18. Fig. 1.15

19. Lithosphere Oceanic crust Oceanic crust Underlies ocean basins Underlies ocean basins Igneous rock basalt Igneous rock basalt Average thickness 8 km (5 miles) Average thickness 8 km (5 miles) Relatively high density Relatively high density 3.0 g/cm 3 3.0 g/cm 3

20. Lithosphere- Crust and Uppermost mantle fused together. Continental crust Continental crust Underlies continents Underlies continents Igneous rock granite Igneous rock granite Average thickness 35 km (22 miles) Average thickness 35 km (22 miles) Lower density Lower density 2.7 g/cm 3 2.7 g/cm 3

22. Asthenosphere Upper mantle Upper mantle Plastic—deforms by flowing Plastic—deforms by flowing High viscosity—flows slowly High viscosity—flows slowly

23. Isostatic adjustment Buoyancy Buoyancy Less dense “floats” higher than more dense Less dense “floats” higher than more dense Continental crust “floats” higher than oceanic crust on plastic asthenosphere Continental crust “floats” higher than oceanic crust on plastic asthenosphere Questions: Questions: Based on Isostatic adjustment, what is the impact of removing a large percentage of groundwater from California? Based on Isostatic adjustment, what is the impact of removing a large percentage of groundwater from California? Based on geologic response, what is the impact of removing a large percentage of groundwater from California? Based on geologic response, what is the impact of removing a large percentage of groundwater from California?

24. Fig. 1.16

25. Origin of Earth’s atmosphere Partial melting resulted in outgassing about 4 billion years ago Partial melting resulted in outgassing about 4 billion years ago Similar to gases emitted from volcanoes Similar to gases emitted from volcanoes Mainly water vapor Mainly water vapor Carbon dioxide, hydrogen Carbon dioxide, hydrogen Other gases such as methane and ammonia Other gases such as methane and ammonia

26. Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere Some scientists describe three stages in the evolution of Earth’s atmosphere as it is today

27. Just formed Earth: Like Earth, the hydrogen (H 2 ) and helium (He) were very warm. These molecules of gas moved so fast they escaped Earth's gravity and eventually all drifted off into space. 1.Earth’s original atmosphere was probably just hydrogen and helium, because these were the main gases in the dusty, gassy disk around the Sun from which the planets formed. The Earth and its atmosphere were very hot. Molecules of hydrogen and helium move really fast, especially when warm. Actually, they moved so fast they eventually all escaped Earth's gravity and drifted off into space.

28. Young Earth: Volcanoes released gases H 2 O (water) as steam, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and ammonia (NH 3 ). Carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater. Simple bacteria thrived on sunlight and CO 2. By-product is oxygen (O 2 ). Earth’s “second atmosphere” came from Earth itself. There were lots of volcanoes, many more than today, because Earth’s crust was still forming. The volcanoes released steam (H 2 O, with two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom), carbon dioxide (CO 2, with one carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms), ammonia (NH 3, with one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms).

30. Current Earth: Plants and animals thrive in balance. Plants take in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and give off oxygen (O 2 ). Animals take in oxygen (O 2 ) and give off CO 2. Burning stuff also gives off CO 2. Much of the CO 2 dissolved into the oceans. Eventually, a simple form of bacteria developed that could live on energy from the Sun and carbon dioxide in the water, producing oxygen as a waste product. Thus, oxygen began to build up in the atmosphere, while the carbon dioxide levels continued to drop. Meanwhile, the ammonia molecules in the atmosphere were broken apart by sunlight, leaving nitrogen and hydrogen. The hydrogen, being the lightest element, rose to the top of the atmosphere and much of it eventually drifted off into space.

31. Now we have Earth’s “third atmosphere,” the one we all know and love—an atmosphere containing enough oxygen for animals, including ourselves, to evolve. So plants and some bacteria use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen, and animals use oxygen and give off carbon-dioxide—how convenient! The atmosphere upon which life depends was created by life itself.

35. Origin of Earth’s oceans Water vapor released by outgassing Water vapor released by outgassing Condensed as rain Condensed as rain Accumulated in ocean basins Accumulated in ocean basins About 4 billion years ago About 4 billion years ago Ice Comets were also important to adding water to the Earth system Ice Comets were also important to adding water to the Earth system

36. Fig. 1.17

37. Volcanic outgassing of Kilauea volcano on Hawai’i

38. Ocean salinity Rain dissolves rocks Rain dissolves rocks Dissolved compounds (ions) accumulate in ocean basins Dissolved compounds (ions) accumulate in ocean basins Ocean salinity based on balance between input and output of ions Ocean salinity based on balance between input and output of ions Ocean salinity nearly constant over past 4 billion years Ocean salinity nearly constant over past 4 billion years

39. Life in oceans Earliest life forms fossilized bacteria in rocks about 3.5 billion years old Earliest life forms fossilized bacteria in rocks about 3.5 billion years old Marine rocks Marine rocks Life originated in oceans? Life originated in oceans?

41. Stanley Miller’s experiment Organic molecules formed by ultraviolet light, electrical spark (lightning), and mixture of water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, and ammonia Organic molecules formed by ultraviolet light, electrical spark (lightning), and mixture of water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, and ammonia

42. Fig. 1.18a

43. Evolution and natural selection Organisms adapt and change through time Organisms adapt and change through time Advantageous traits are naturally selected Advantageous traits are naturally selected Traits inherited Traits inherited Organisms adapt to environments Organisms adapt to environments Organisms change environments Organisms change environments

44. Types of life forms Heterotrophs (most bacteria and animals) Heterotrophs (most bacteria and animals) Autotrophs (algae and plants) Autotrophs (algae and plants) Anaerobic bacteria (chemosynthesis) Anaerobic bacteria (chemosynthesis) Photosynthetic autotrophs Photosynthetic autotrophs Chlorophyll captures solar energy Chlorophyll captures solar energy

45. Photosynthesis and respiration Fig. 1.19

46. Oxygen crisis Photosynthetic bacteria release oxygen (O 2 ) to atmosphere Photosynthetic bacteria release oxygen (O 2 ) to atmosphere About 2 billion years ago, sufficient O 2 in atmosphere to oxidize (rust) rocks About 2 billion years ago, sufficient O 2 in atmosphere to oxidize (rust) rocks Ozone (O 3 ) builds up in atmosphere Ozone (O 3 ) builds up in atmosphere Protects Earth’s surface from ultraviolet solar radiation Protects Earth’s surface from ultraviolet solar radiation

47. Oxygen crisis About 1.8 billion years ago, most anaerobic bacteria killed off by O 2 - rich atmosphere About 1.8 billion years ago, most anaerobic bacteria killed off by O 2 - rich atmosphere Photosynthetic organisms created today’s O 2 -rich atmosphere Photosynthetic organisms created today’s O 2 -rich atmosphere O 2 makes up about 21% of gases in modern atmosphere O 2 makes up about 21% of gases in modern atmosphere Animals thrive Animals thrive

48. Age of Earth Radiometric age dating Radiometric age dating Spontaneous change/decay Spontaneous change/decay Half-life Half-life Earth is about 4.6 billion years old Earth is about 4.6 billion years old

49. Fig. 1.22

50. Geologic time scale Fig. 1.H

51. End of CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Planet “Earth”