1. Language Module Specialised module in the brain? What other evidence could support Chomskys hypothesis? Neuroimaging cant pinpoint a single area Many different areas involved in different aspects of language Some areas seem to serve a number of different functions Modular processing could still exist within a functional module Functionally specialised neural circuits A combination of components some special to language, others more general

2. Language Module Evidence… People with damaged language module, but other cognitive abilities ok Damage in Brocas area in the left hemisphere –can be unable to produce or perceive language with complicated grammar People with limited cognitive abilities, but language module ok Williams Syndrome –severe mental deficits, but grammatical language Many recent results/theories contradict this Damage in Wernicke's area – specialised language skill areas Poor comprehension Speech has a natural-sounding rhythm and normal syntax …but no recognisable meaning (fluent or jargon aphasia) Specific language impairment – 6% of population Not related to or caused by other developmental disorders Difficulty with inflected forms of words, "-ed" Alternative: language processed in general cognitive system No clear consensus yet… grammar localised… words not

3. Can Chimpanzees Learn Sign Language? Washoe was trained for sign More Learned sign for toothbrush by imitation Made up some novel combinations of words: refrigerator = OPEN FOOD DRINK Some criticisms of results Tried to replicate results with Nim Chimpsky, failed Learnt some signs, but no grammar Learnt nothing that could not be taught to a pigeon Much controversy about these studies Some claim it was self deception Example (Pinker): Researchers said chimp was making a sign Native human signer said he was just scratching himself

4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language's nature influences the habitual thought of its speakers. Hopi language Western languages : the present and future are thought of as "places Time is a path linking them "three days" equivalent to "three apples", or "three kilometres Native American languages oriented towards process Inuit people Numerous words for snow Modifies the world view of the Eskimo Creates a different mode of existence for them Geoffrey Pullum: "The great Eskimo vocabulary hoax Language of the Pirahã tribe of Brazil Contains three counting words: one, two and many. Pirahã people have difficulty recounting numbers > 3 Controversy: maybe Pirahã have no need to practice doing so

5. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Strong form of hypothesis: language determines thought Popular in fiction: Orwells 1984 newspeak, e.g. no freedom Generally not accepted nowadays But some weaker elements may be present Different languages categorise the world in different ways In English: The dog ran through the forest The dog ran through the table(!) In English the table is more thought of as its top Other languages think of it more as its legs

6. Classifiers and Categories George Lakoff book: Women, Fire and Dangerous Things Dyirbal language I - most animate objects, men II - women, water, fire, violence, and exceptional animals III - edible fruit and vegetables IV - miscellaneous (everything else)

7. Metaphors Argument is war Your claims are indefensible He attacked every weak point in my argument His criticisms were right on target I demolished his argument Ive never won an argument with him You disagree? Okay, shoot. If you use that strategy hell wipe you out. He shot down all of my arguments.

8. Metaphors Time is a resource Youre wasting my time This gadget will save you hours I dont have the time to give you How do you spend your time these days? That flat tire cost me an hour Ive invested a lot of time in her I dont have enough time to spare for that Youre running out of time Do you have much time left? Hes living on borrowed time Thank you for your time I lost a lot of time when I got sick

9. Metaphors The conduit metaphor Ideas are objects Language expressions are containers Communication is sending Examples Its hard to get that idea across to him I gave you that idea Your reasons came through to us Its difficult to put my ideas into words His words carry little meaning Your words are hollow The idea is buried in terribly dense paragraphs

10. Metaphors Up is positive, down is negative He is at the peak of health He came down with flu His health is declining I am on top of the situation He is at the height of his power His power rose He fell from power The stock is rising We are at an all-time low

11. Metaphors Personification Life has cheated me His religion tells him he cannot drink wine The Michelson-Morley experiment gave birth to a new physical theory Cancer finally caught up with him Inflation has attacked the foundations of our economy Inflation is eating up our profits Inflation has robbed me of my savings Inflation has outwitted the best economic minds in the country …inflation is an adversary Declare war on inflation Call for sacrifices Install a new chain of command

12. Metaphors Lakoffs Thesis: cognition is depends on the linguistic metaphor We are completely immersed in metaphors There seems to be no way to say some things without metaphors