1. From exercise intention to behaviour and beyond Hagger & Chatzisarantis, Chapter 3

2. Outline Recap on theory of planned behaviour
Limitation of social cognitive theories and introducing volitional processes
Intention-behaviour relationships
Implementation intentions
Self-determination theory
Transcontextual model
Other pre-decisional strategies:
Continuation intentions
Decisional balance
Combined strategies
Motivational interviewing

3. Applying the TPB to Exercise Behaviour
Attitudes
.30*
Intentions
Behaviour
.36*
Subjective
Norms
.08*
.28*
Perceived
Control
Source: Hagger, Chatzisarantis & Biddle (2002)

4. Intention-Behaviour Relationships
However, Intention-Behaviour relationships are often not perfect
What does this mean?
Intentions
Behaviour
.36*
Less than 1.00!

5. Intention-Behaviour Relationships
This means that we often do not do what we intend to do!
Why?
Intention instability: Additional information comes to light and we change our mind
Principle of correspondence: Errors in measurement of intentions and behaviour
Intention formation: Poorly formed intentions
Self-schema: People with tendency to enact intentions
Volitional and forced intentions: Intentions based on personal beliefs and others’ beliefs

6. Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and Introducing Volitional Processes
Intention stability
Intention stability initially considered a ‘technical problem’ by Ajzen (1985) due to inherent inaccuracies in measurement
More than a technical problem – a boundary condition and an important ‘property’ of intention (Hagger et al., 2001)
Stable intentions are better predictors of exercise behaviour
Intention stability therefore moderates the intention-behaviour relationship (Conner et al., 2000)

7. Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and Introducing Volitional Processes
Scale correspondence
Intention-behaviour link strongest When measures correspond in terms of Action, Target, Context, Time (TACT; Ajzen, 1985)
Results in exercise show that correspondence rule does not fully explain variations in intention-behaviour relationship (Hagger et al., 2002)
Intention formation
Poorly formed intentions (i.e., vague, ill rehearsed) are vulnerable to change because of retrieval and forgetting
Well-formed intentions predict behaviour more effectively (Bagozzi & Yi, 1989)

8. Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and Introducing Volitional Processes
Self-Schema
Self-schema are cognitive generalisations about the self derived from past experience
People who rate important characteristics relevant to the self highly relevant to the exercise domain are considered schematics
Contrast with non-schematics and aschematics
“Physically active”, “exercise regularly”, “keeps in shape” rated on describes me-does not describe me scales and importance i.e., not at all important-very important

9. Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and Introducing Volitional Processes
Self-Schema 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Source: Sheeran & Orbell (2000)

10. Limitations of Social Cognitive Theories and Introducing Volitional Processes
Volitional and forced intentions
People may intend to do exercise, but their intentions may not be based on personal attitudes or reasons for engaging in the behaviour
People may therefore intend to do something because they feel they are ‘forced’ to (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1958)
Volitional intentions are those that people feel they want to execute by themselves
Chatzisarantis et al. (1997) found that both volitional and forced intentions predicted exercise behaviour independent of traditional intentions
Effect sizes were small so impact was relatively weak

11. Implementation Intentions
Gollwitzer et al. (1999) Implementation intentions: “Strong effects of simple plans”
How do we furnish our goals with actions to achieve the goals?
“I intend to achieve goal/outcome X”
“I plan to do behaviour Z will help me to achieve X”
“If condition Y arises I will do behaviour Z”
This does not change intentions, but strengthens the intention-behaviour relationship

12. Implementation Intentions
Thus implementation intentions act as a moderator of the intention-behaviour relationship
Under conditions of high implementation intentions there will be a strong intention-behaviour relationship
Thus implementation intentions act in a ‘post-decisional’ manner

13. Implementation Intentions
High implementation intentions result in strong intention-behaviour relations
Intention ++
Behaviour
Implementation
Intention
Intention
Behaviour
No Implementation
Intention +

14. Studies Using Implementation Intentions
Three studies in health behaviour support use of implementation intentions in the field:
Orbell et al. (1997) Breast self-examination
Sheeran and Orbell (1999) Vitamin tablet intake
Orbell and Sheeran (2000) Function after surgery
Key findings:
Attitudes, intentions did not change
Behaviour engagement changed
Intention-Behaviour relation strengthened
Studies support the use of implementation intentions

15. What Does an Implementation Intention ‘Look’ Like?
Typically use a ‘pen and paper’ manipulation:
You are more likely to exercise for at least 30 minutes per day in the next week if you say when and where you will exercise and stick to your plan. In the boxes below write down when and where you plan to exercise in the next week:
When: At lunch time after accounts meeting
Where: In the gym at work

16. Continuation Intentions
Chatzisarantis et al. (2004) figured that people’s intentions are inadequate
As we approach a behavioural goal the outcome becomes less salient
Continuation intentions (CI) focus on providing intentions to continue beyond the attainment of salient outcomes
CI of Success – Plan to continue with exercise program if successful in achieving goals
CI of Failure – Plan to continue with exercise program if unsuccessful in achieving goals

17. Continuation Intentions
Goal progress – how close a person is to achieving their exercise goals
Results in exercise found CI of success and failure predicted additional variance in behaviour compared with intentions alone
Perceived goal progress moderated effects of CI of success and failure on exercise behaviour
High CI success = greater exercise engagement BUT only under conditions of high perceived goal progress

18. Continuation Intentions
CI Success
CI Failure

19. Intention-Behaviour Relationship
How else can we strengthen the intention-behaviour relationship?
Intentions
Behaviour
.36*
Change these!

20. How Do We Change Intentions?
Change attitudes, perceived behavioural control to affect decision to exercise before it is made
Various strategies have been used
Attitudes: Information giving and personalised feedback (Armitage & Conner, 2000)
Motives from Self-Determination Theory, using autonomy support strategies (Chatzisarantis et al., 2002; Hagger et al., 2002b)

21. Self-Determination Theory
Type of Motivation
Intrinsic
Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Identification
Introjection
External regulation
Perceived Locus of Causality Scale
For personally-held values such as learning new skills, resulting in feelings satisfaction; High internalization
For avoiding external sources, of disapproval (guilt) or gaining externally referenced approval (self-esteem)
For external reinforcement such as gaining rewards or avoiding punishment.
For enjoyment, pleasure and fun; no discernible reinforcement.
Defining
Features
AUTONOMOUS
MOTIVES
(high autonomy)
CONTROLLING MOTIVES
(low autonomy)
Position on Autonomy Continuum
Intrinsic
High
Internalisation
Low
Degree of Internalisation

22. Self-Determination Theory and Exercise
Intrinsic
Motivation
Identified
Regulation
Introjected
Regulation
External
Regulation
Amotivation
Internal
External Locus of Causality
“I exercise
because it’s
fun”
“I exercise
because it
helps keep
me fit”
“I exercise
because I
will feel
guilty if I
don’t”
“I exercise
because I
will be
punished if I
don’t”
“I’m not
really sure
why I
exercise”
Source: Deci and Ryan (1985)

23. Influence of Overarching Motives from Self-Determination Theory
Attitude
.41
Subjective
Norm
Intention
.45
Perceived
Control
Source: Hagger , Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002) BJHP

24. Influence of Overarching Motives from Self-Determination Theory
Attitude
.41
Subjective
Norm
Intention
R2 = .32
.45
Perceived
Control
Source: Hagger , Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002) BJHP

25. Influence of Overarching Motives from Self-Determination Theory
External
R2 = .55
Attitude
.41
Introjection
Subjective
Norm
Intention
.74
Intrinsic
R2 = .32
.37
.45
Perceived
Control
.71
R2 = .51
Source: Hagger , Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002) BJHP

26. The Transcontextual Model
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Attitude
Identified Regulation
Identified Regulation
Perceived Autonomy Support
Subjective Norm
Intention
(R2 = .63)
Behavior
(R2 = .28)
Introjected Regulation
Introjected Regulation
Perceived Behavioural Control
External Regulation
External Regulation
Time 3: Leisure-Time Context
Time 1: PE Context
Time 2: Leisure-Time Context
Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse & Biddle (2003) Journal of Educational Psychology

27. Important Effects in the TCM
Attitude
.27*
.20*
Perceived
Autonomy
Support
Autonomous
Motives
Autonomous
Motives
.49*
.39*
.25*
Intention
Behaviour
.16*
.15*
Control
.10
Time 3:
Physical
Activity
Behaviour
Time 1: Physical Education
Context
Time 2: Leisure-Time Context
*p < .05

28. Guidelines Based on Self-Determination Theory and Trans-Contextual Model
Reeve (2002) puts forward the behaviours which promote autonomous motivation:
Avoid use of external incentives and controlling feedback
Promoting choice and sense of ownership
Focus on task and personal goals rather than comparisons with others
Provide a personal rationale
Feedback that is information related to competence focusing on progress

29. Another Example of a Pre-decisional Strategy: Decisional Balance
The decisional balance sheet (Wankel, 1984) outlines the positive (‘pros’) and negative (‘cons’) aspects of exercise
Similar to a ‘cost-benefit’ analysis
Exercisers attended 84% classes using DB sheet compared with 40% without (Hoyt & Janis, 1975)
Some have focused on changing stage from contemplation to action in TTM (see Prochaska & DiClemente, 1993)

30. What About Pre- and Post-decisional Strategies in Combination?
IV2: Decisional balance
Prestwich, Lawton
& Conner (2003)
Decisional Balance No
Implementation Intention
Combined
Imp. Int.
Only
Dec. Bal. Only
Control
IV1: Implementation
Intention

31. Results: Graphical Representation
Physical activity behaviour

32. Decisional Balance and Implementation Intentions
Decisional balance in combination with implementation intention exercise
Experimental strategies produced a greater increase in exercise frequency and total time spent exercising per week
Volitional groups taken together produced greater increase in time spent exercising than the DBS alone
The DBS may have aided recall of the implementation intention or increased commitment to it
Source: Prestwich, Lawton & Conner (2003)

33. Motivational Interviewing
A theoretically based exercise promotion technique
Borrowed from alcohol abuse and smoking clinical interview techniques
Main proponents: Stephen Rollnick and Colleagues
Aim to focus on resistant non-exercisers and help investigate personally-relevant reasons c.f. Deci et al. (1994)

34. Motivational Interviewing
Aims
To provide information without threatening autonomy and without evoking ‘psychological reactance’
To explore conflicts and encourage interviewees to express their own reasons for change
To use an appropriate strategy according to a person’s ‘readiness for change’

35. Motivational Interviewing
Key concepts
Ambivalence
Problem: Pro’s and Con’s associated with change, cannot be reconciled
Solution: MI aims to explore conflict & encourage people to express their own reasons for concern/change
Readiness to change
Problem: People vary on continuum of readiness:
Solution: Moving forward on continuum is desired outcome, even if actual behaviour change does not occur, key strategies ‘a typical day’/‘good things’/‘less good things’
Not at all
ready to
change
Undergoing decision
making and actual
behaviour change

36. Strategies in Motivational Interviewing
A ‘menu’ of strategies:
Raise awareness
Provide information
The ‘future and present’ strategy
Exploring concerns
Helping with decision making
Source: Rollnick, Heather & Bell (1991)

37. Key Strategies
(1) Raise awareness – e.g. “have you ever thought about exercise?” and “do you know what exercise can do for you?”, avoid scare tactics like “if you don’t exercise you might die of a heart attack!” and statements like “the less good things about exercise are....”
(2) Provide information - Providing information in the most optimal way do not “wag your finger”
(3) The future and the present strategy - “How would you like things to change in the future” and “what’s stopping you from doing exercise?”
(4) Exploring concerns - provide information about the behaviour and how they would like it to change
(5) Helping with decision making - Patients in the preparatory phase require assistance in making their decision, self initiation.  

38. Key Strategies
(4) Exploring concerns - provide information about the behaviour and how they would like it to change
(5) Helping with decision making - Patients in the preparatory phase require assistance in making their decision, self initiation.

39. Self-determination Theory and Motivational Interviewing
Markland, Ryan, Tobin, & Rollnick (2005) and Vansteenkiste & Sheldon (2006)
Initially - intrinsic motivation stated as a core ‘aspect’ of MI, but no theoretical basis
Recent authors present a SDT ‘reading’ of MI
Approach in SDT supports psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness:
Autonomy: Clients suggest personal reasons for change and experimenter ‘rolls with resistance’
Competence: Clients given clear feedback and encouraged to arrive at their own goals
Relatedness: Clients ‘supported’ by non-judgemental interviewer who expresses empathy.

40. Source: Markland (2004) Autonomy Support Structure Involvement
Motivational interviewing
Present clear and neutral information about behaviour and outcomes
Provide positive feedback
Develop appropriate goals
Elicit and reinforce self-motivational statements
Motivational interviewing
Present options
Let client make decisions
Develop discrepancy to allow client to change
Roll with resistance
Motivational interviewing
Express empathy
Demonstrate understanding
Avoid criticism and judgement
Explore client’s concerns
Competence
Self-Determination
Relatedness
Source: Markland (2004)