1. Data Collection and Sampling
Statistics for Management and Economics
Chapter 5

2. Objectives Methods of Collecting Data Sampling Sampling Plans
Sampling and Nonsampling Errors

3. Sampling and statistics…
Statistics is a tool for converting data into information:
Data
Statistics
Information
But where then does data come from? How is it gathered? How do we ensure its accurate? Is the data reliable? Is it representative of the population from which it was drawn?

4. Methods of Collecting Data
There are many methods used to collect or obtain data for statistical analysis. Three of the most popular methods are:
Direct Observation / Naturalistic Observation
Experiments
Surveys
Each of these methods can be utilized in different types of data collection:
Cross-sectional
Longitudinal
Retrospective
Prospective

5. Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a sub-set of a whole population.
Often done for reasons of…
cost (it’s less expensive to sample 1,000 television viewers than 100 million TV viewers) and
practicality (e.g. performing a crash test on every automobile produced is impractical).
In any case, the sample and the target population should be similar to one another.

6. Sampling Plans
A sampling plan is a method or procedure for specifying how a sample will be taken from a population. It is usually established long before the beginning of any data collection.
We will focus our attention on these three methods
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling

7. Simple Random Sampling
A simple random sample is a sample selected in such a way that every possible sample of the same size is equally likely to be chosen.
Drawing three names from a hat containing all the names of the students in the class is an example of a simple random sample: any group of three names is as equally likely as picking any other group of three names.
This can be done using a table of random numbers, a random number generator, or a computer package (Excel has a randomization function).

8. Stratified Random Sampling
A stratified random sample is obtained by separating the population into mutually exclusive sets, or strata.
After the population has been stratified, we can use simple random sampling to generate the complete sample
We can acquire about the total population, make inferences within a stratum or make comparisons across strata.

9. Cluster Sampling
A cluster sample is a simple random sample of groups or clusters of elements (vs. a simple random sample of individual
Useful when it is difficult or costly to develop a complete list of the population members or when the population elements are widely dispersed geographically. Examples?
Cluster sampling may increase sampling error due to similarities among cluster members.

10. Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
Two major types of error can arise when a sample of observations is taken from a population:
Sampling error
Differences between the sample and the population
Exist only because of the observations that happened to be selected for the sample
Increasing the sample size will reduce this type of error
Nonsampling error
More serious
Due to mistakes made in the acquisition of data or
Due to the sample observations being selected improperly
Increasing the sample size will not reduce this type of error

11. Non-Sampling Errors Errors in data acquisition Non-Response Error
Arises from the recording of incorrect responses
Measurement, transcription, misinterpretation
Non-Response Error
Introduced when responses are not obtained from some members of the sample
Response Rate is used to attempt to identify sources of this error
Selection Bias
Some members of the target population cannot possibly be selected for inclusion in the sample

12. Learning about populations from samples
The techniques of inferential statistics allow us to draw inferences or conclusions about a population from a sample.
Your estimate of the population is only as good as your sampling design  Work hard to eliminate biases.
Your sample is only an estimate — and if you randomly sampled again, you would probably get a somewhat different result.
The bigger the sample the better. We’ll get back to this in later chapters.
Population
Sample