The 4 Modern States of Matter

The 4 Modern States of Matter
Animation Tutorial Matter can take four states: Solid Solid is the state in which matter maintains a fixed volume and shape. Liquid liquid is the state in which matter maintains a fixed volume but adapts to the shape of its container Gas Gas is the state in which matter expands to occupy whatever volume is available. Plasma Plasma can be considered highly ionized particles that have distinct properties, so that it is usually considered as a different phase or state of matter The states of matter and their properties can be defined and explained by the motion of particles, (atoms and molecules). The explanation is called Kinetic Molecular Theory. Another animation Definitions from wikipedia

Changing States of Matter
Phase Change Animation Changing States of Matter Name the four states of matter? What states of matter are fluid, can flow? Which state of matter has the strongest bonds between particles? Which states of matter have no bonds between particles? Which state of matter is the most energetic? Which state of matter has the least amount of heat? What is enthalpy? How are temperature, energy and state of matter related? Define: sublimation, deposition, melting, freezing, evaporation, condensation, ionization, deionization. The three states of matter that are most often studied are gas, liquid, and solid. A fourth state of matter, plasma, which is much hotter (more energetic) than gas is included here. Notice that plasma can only be formed from a gas which is ionized (changed into charged particles). To make a change from one state of matter requires a change in energy. For example, the change form the liquid state to a gas is called vaporization. The amount of energy (heat) needed to make this change is called the enthalpy (heat) of vaporization. Since the gas state of matter is hotter than is the liquid state, enthalpy of vaporization is the amount of heat that must be added to the liquid for it to change into a gas. Movie Slide by: J. Levasseur © by J VanCleave

Kinetic Molecular Theory
The Kinetic-Molecular Theory ("the theory of moving molecules) The Kinetic Molecular Theory is based on the idea that particles of matter are always in motion. Kinetic-molecular theory can be used to explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases in terms of the energy particles and the forces that act between them. What is kinetic Molecular Theory? How does Kinetic Molecular theory explain the behavior of gases? What is the relationship between a gases’ volume, pressure an temperature? Why is more energy required to turn liquid water into a gas than other molecules (H2S for example)? Assumptions of Kinetic Molecular Theory Gases are composed of a large number of particles that behave like hard, spherical objects in a state of constant, random motion. These particles move in a straight line until they collide with another particle or the walls of the container. These particles are much smaller than the distance between particles. Most of the volume of a gas is therefore empty space. There is no force of attraction between gas particles or between the particles and the walls of the container. Collisions between gas particles or collisions with the walls of the container are perfectly elastic. None of the energy of a gas particle is lost when it collides with another particle or with the walls of the container. The average kinetic energy of a collection of gas particles depends on the temperature of the gas and nothing else. Solid Liquid Gas Animation Tutorial

Atomic Structure and Nuclear Chemistry
section 2: The Atom Video Part 1 on Atoms Video Part 2 on Atoms Atomic Structure and Nuclear Chemistry Springfield Central High School Chemistry John Levasseur centralscience.net Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

MA State Frameworks 2. Atomic Structure and Nuclear Chemistry
Central Concepts: Atomic models are used to explain atoms and help us understand the interaction of elements and compounds observed on a macroscopic scale. Nuclear chemistry deals with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and nuclear properties. Nuclear reactions produce tremendous amounts of energy and lead to the formation of elements. 2.1 Recognize discoveries from Dalton (atomic theory), Thomson (the electron), Rutherford (the nucleus), and Bohr (planetary model of atom), and understand how each discovery leads to modern theory. 2.2 Describe Rutherford’s “gold foil” experiment that led to the discovery of the nuclear atom. Identify the major components (protons, neutrons, and electrons) of the nuclear atom and explain how they interact. 2.3 Interpret and apply the laws of conservation of mass, constant composition (definite proportions), and multiple proportions. 2.4 Write the electron configurations for the first twenty elements of the periodic table. 2.5 Identify the three main types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, and gamma) and compare their properties (composition, mass, charge, and penetrating power). 2.6 Describe the process of radioactive decay by using nuclear equations, and explain the concept of half-life for an isotope (for example, C-14 is a powerful tool in determining the age of objects). 2.7 Compare and contrast nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

The Atom The Basic Model of an Atom Animation Tutorial
Atoms- tiny units of mass that take up space; these units determine the properties of matter. These tiny units have no net charge having equal positive protons and negative electrons. The atom consists of two regions. The nucleus Protons Neutrons Energy levels (electron clouds) Electrons Specific amounts of energy Animation Tutorial Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

The Atom’s Nucleus Animation
Protons are positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus The number of protons in an atom will determine what type of element. The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in that element’s atoms’ nuclei Neutrons are particles with no net charge and found in the nucleus Protons are positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus Neutrons have no net charge and allow the positively charged protons to be tightly packed into the nucleus What are atoms? What are protons, neutrons and electrons? What is he nucleus of an atom? What makes one kind of atom, (element) different from another? What is the “Strong Force, and why is the Strong Force an example of E=mc2? Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

The Atom’s Electrons (e-)
Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particle found in discrete energy levels around the atom’s nucleus . Electrons are found in the outer regions surrounding the nucleus called energy levels also known as energy shells. The outermost energy level is called the valence level. The electrons found in the valence level is called the valence electron. The number of valence electrons determine the chemical reactions of the element. How an atom behaves when it encounters other atoms is determined by valence electrons. What are electrons? What is the valence level in an atom? How do electrons determine the behavior of groups of the periodic table? How many valence electrons does each of the following atoms have: Na, B, Si, Sb, Br, Kr, K, C, He Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

What is a Mole? What is a Mole? Animation
The Mole The mole is the SI unit for amount of substance. A mole (abbreviated mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. Avogadro’s Number Avogadro’s number is the number of particles in exactly one mole of a pure substance. × 1023 Knowing the mole value for chemicals is the key to understanding so many other values that you can measure for in a lab. What is a Mole? Animation The Mole is a counting word with a value of about 6.02 x 1023 Think of other counting words in English Pair = 2 Dozen = 12 Gross = 144 Grand = 1000 Mole = 6.02 x 1023 6.02 x 1023 (mole) is such an important number it was given a name, Avogadro’s Number Avogadro was a famous Italian chemist So, 6.02 x 1023 is often referred to as Avogadro’s Number. Like 3.14 is often referred to as Pi The Mole The mole is the SI unit for amount of substance. A mole (abbreviated mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. There are × 1023 atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. There are approximately 6.02 x 1023 carbon atoms in 12 grams of carbon So a Mole is 6.02 x 1023 particles, (atoms, molecules, formula units, protons, ect) Avogadro’s Number Avogadro’s number is the number of particles in exactly one mole of a pure substance. × 1023 Animation Central Concepts

Atomic Mass & Molar Mass
When you look at a Periodic Table, the numbers under the element symbols are the relative atomic weights. For example, notice helium and neon, it shows that neon is basically 5 times heavier ( / ). If we compare helium to carbon, we see that carbon is about 3 times heavier ( / ) These are relative weights, but if we count out a mole of these atoms, then these numbers is the weight in grams . In other words, a mole of sulfur weighs grams Molar Mass The mass of one mole of a pure substance is called the molar mass of that substance. Molar mass is usually written in units of g/mol. The molar mass of an element is numerically equal to the atomic mass of the element in atomic mass units. Tutorial Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Solving a Grams per Mole Problem with the This per that triangle
. If you have 880 grams of Calcium (Ca), how many moles of Calcium do you have? What is the “This”? What is the “That”? What is the “This per That”? How do you find the molar mass of Ca? This This per That That 880 grams 40 g/mol mol ? 22 mol We know the “This” is 880 grams We can look up Calcium on the periodic table and find out the molar mass is 40 g/mol So we can solve for the number of moles.

Solving a Grams per Mole Problem with the This per that triangle
. This This per That That 883.5 grams If you have grams of Cobalt (Co), how many moles of Cobalt do you have? What is the “This”? What is the “That”? What is the “This per That”? How do you find the molar mass of Co? 58.9 g/mol ? 15 mol We know the “This” is grams We can look up the molar mass of Co and find out the it is g/mol So we can solve for the number of moles. How many moles of cobalt (Co) are in grams of cobalt? How many moles of Indium (In) are in grams of In? What is the mass of 10 moles of cobalt ? What is the mass of 7.5 moles of Indium? Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Next Problem: Grams per mole
5.3 You have a sample of .66 moles of Potassium (K), how much should your sample weigh? What is the “This” in our Problem? What is the “That” in our Problem? What is the “This per That”? What is the mass of 2.5 moles of Na? How many moles of carbon are there in 66 grams of carbon? What is the mass of 3 moles of oxygen, (careful HONClBrIF)? This per That .

History of the Atomic Theory
Democritus 400 B.C. Nothing exists but atoms and empty space, everything else is opinion Atoms Indivisible geometric shapes Dalton 1830 Daltons Atomic Theory Ball and Hook Model Thompson 1906 Discovery of subatomic particles: electron and protons Plum Pudding Model from Thompson Rutherford 1909 Electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets around a star Discovery of atomic nucleus Dense positive nucleus surrounded by negative electron Rutherford Did not obey laws of physics Bohr 1913 Electron movement by quantum rather than classical physics Electrons have discrete energy levels Only works for hydrogen Modern Quantum (or orbital) Model 1924 Schrödinger and Heisenberg Electron can not be located Estimated location of electron based on probabilities History of the Atomic Theory Democritus Dalton Thompson Rutherford Bohr Schrödinger/ Heisenberg 1909 Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

History of the Atomic Theory: Dalton
John Dalton’s recognition of atoms and his Atomic Theory are an explanation of three Laws in Chemistry 1. The Law of Conservation of Mass 2. The Law of Definite Proportions 3. The Law of Multiple Proportions Dalton’s Atomic Theory can be summarized in 5 points: All matter is made of atoms Atoms are neither created nor destroyed Atoms of the same element are identical Atoms of different elements differ in mass, shape, size and properties Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement in the combinations of atoms in substances Dalton’s Atomic Model pictured atoms as balls and hooks that can grasp onto or release one another What are the 5 points of Dalton's Atomic Theory? Since the time of Dalton new discoveries have shown that Dalton was not completely correct; however his atomic theory is the foundation of our modern understanding of atoms.

Discovery of the Law of Conservation of Mass
5.1 Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier was a Paris tax collector who had a passion for scientific discovery. Lavoisier was appointed to the King’s Academy for science. Lavoisier and his wife Marie worked together . The Lavoisiers’ great discovery was based on the fact that rusting iron gains mass rather than losses mass. Lavoisier showed that when water is passed through a heated rifle barrel some of the water disappears; however, the mass of the lost water can be accounted for by the increased mass of the rifle barrel and the mass of a new gas that appears, (hydrogen). Lavoisier stated that no mass is lost or gained in chemical reactions, the Law of Conservation of Mass. Lavoisier’s conclusion was that mass is neither gained nor lost in a chemical reaction. This is known as the Law of Conservation of Mass.

The Law of Conservation of Mass
5.1 The Law of Conservation of Mass States that mass is neither created nor destroyed in any ordinary chemical reaction. Or more simply, the mass of substances produced (products) by a chemical reaction is always equal to the mass of the reacting substances (reactants). The law of conservation of mass: Lavoisier: No mass is gained or lost in a chemical reaction After Dalton: Atoms are neither created, nor destroyed, during any chemical reaction Example: 4g Hydrogen 32g oxygen  36g water (H2O) 1.00g carbon g sulfur  6.34g carbon disulphide 2.00g carbon g sulfur  12.68g carbon disulphide The Law of Conservation of Mass says that no matter is created or destroyed in chemical reaction. From this we know that: All chemical equations MUST have the same number of atoms of the different reactant elements as atoms in the products. The mass of the reactants MUST equal the mass of the products. This law is the basis of balancing chemical equations. structure/

Discovery of Electron & Thomson Atomic Model
The discovery of the first subatomic particle, the electron, came from experiments on the effects of electricity in a cathode ray tube done by J.J. Thomson. A cathode ray tube is a glass tube containing a gas. When a paddle wheel was placed in a cathode ray tube, the wheel spun and rolled from cathode to anode Thomson hypothesized that a stream of particles with mass were originating at the cathode and moving toward the anode caused the glow. When exposed to a magnetic field, the cathode ray was deflected in the same manner as an electric current, which has a negative charge. Thomson based his plum pudding model of the atom on these findings. Animation Animation 2 J.J. Thomson used what tool to discover what part of the atom?

E. Rutherford and the Gold Foil Experiment
Rutherford’s new atomic model had the negatively charged electrons indefinitely orbiting the positively charged nucleus. According to the classical laws of physics the electrons should fall into the nucleus. Ernest Rutherford discovered that atoms have a solid nucleus in 1909 Rutherford shot alpha particles at gold foil and discovered some alpha particles bounced back He concluded that the alpha particles were hitting a solid nucleus Rutherford postulated a new atomic model A model he knew was not correct since it violated basic laws of physics. A new explanation of motion had to made to explain what was happening inside atoms. The new explanation is called quantum mechanics Note: In the gold foil experiment Rutherford showed that the nucleus is a small, dense and positively charged mass in the center of the atom. Know Rutherford’s experiment Movie Animation Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

History of the Atomic Theory: Bohr Model
Niels Bohr concluded in 1913 that electrons inside atoms are “quantized” Quantized means that the electrons have discrete fixed energy levels. This differed from Rutherford because Rutherford did not see how an orbiting negative electron would not fall into a positive nucleus based on Newton's Laws. Bohr applied Max Planck’s idea that energy moves in tiny but discrete bundles at a time One bundle is a quanta Bohr initially recognized 6 energy levels but as measuring instruments improved 4 energy levels were agreed on, the outer three having sublevels. Like Rutherford’s, Bohr’s atomic model resembled the planets’ orbit around the sun. However, Bohr’s rings around the nucleus show levels of energy not pathways of the electrons. The Bohr Atomic Model has four energy levels where electrons travel about the nucleus only in these energy levels or their sublevels; however, the model does not state locations of where electrons are rather the model shows electron energy levels. Animation

Color, Light and Energy Gas put in tubes then electrified glows with beautiful colors. What is happening? The electricity is exciting the electrons in the atoms of the gas. The electrons absorb a certain amount of energy then jump to higher energy levels; this is a quantum leap. The electrons are most stable in a lower state closer to the nucleus, so the electron will give off the same amount of energy that they absorbed then drop back to a ground state. The different elements will glow different colors because the different elements have different electron configuration. Each electron configuration means a different amount of energy will be absorbed then released as a light photon Different colors actually represent different amounts of energy Each gas will glow a different color since the different elements have differing electron configurations.

The Bohr Model Explains Line Spectra
Energy and Orbitals of Bohr Model The energy levels and the sublevels correspond to the energy represented in the line spectra The Bohr model explains the phenomenon of line spectra rather than continuous color because the difference in energy between the energy levels determines color of light emitted when an electron moves from one energy level to another. You GOT to see this periodic Table animated with the spdf levels again and showing the line spectra for various elements AGAIN Animation

How are the electrons moving around the nucleus?
Nobody really knows. In fact, it's more than that - current theory says that it is impossible to know. If you have planets in orbit around the sun, it is possible to plot out an orbit for them in mathematical terms. You can't predict locations of electrons. To plot an orbit, you need to know, amongst other things, exactly where the electron is, what direction it is heading in, and how fast it is going. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle says you can't know with certainty both where an electron is and where it is going next. If we can't know these essential facts, then we have no idea what the electrons are actually doing in the atom. All we can know about them is: Their energy Where they most likely are. Any particular electron will be found in a region of space known as an orbital. Each individual orbital can hold 2 electrons Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Electron Orbitals and the Periodic Table
Animation An atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of electrons in an atom. An atomic orbital can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom's nucleus. These functions may serve as three-dimensional graph of an electron’s likely location. The structure of the Periodic table can be understood based on atomic orbitals . Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Atomic Orbitals: The order of filling orbitals
Electrons fill low energy orbitals (closer to the nucleus) before they fill higher energy ones. Where there is a choice between orbitals of equal energy, they fill the orbitals singly as far as possible. Electrons stay as far as they can from each other. Movie Helium 1s2 One of the amazing phenomenon with electron energy levels is that the 3p high energy sublevel of the third energy level is more energetic than the 4s low energy sublevel of the fourth energy level. This pattern repeats itself and can be seen on the Periodic Table. Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Practice Writing Electron Configuration Notation
. What elements have the Noble Gas configurations: [Ar] 4s1 [Kr] 5p2 Does P3- have a stable (noble gas configuration? Hydrogen Helium… Beryllium….. Nitrogen...… Silicon………. Sulfur………… Argon…….… Potassium……… Calcium…. 1s1 1s2 1s22s2 1s22s22p3 [He] 2s22p3 1s22s22p63s23p2 [Ne] 3s23p2 1s22s22p63s23p4 [Ne] 3s23p4 1s22s22p63s23p6 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 [Ar] 4s1 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 [Ar] 4s2 Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Radioactivity is the spontaneous breakdown of an atom’s nucleus
Radioactivity is the spontaneous breakdown of an atom’s nucleus. This breakdown of atomic nuclei releases certain particles and energy. The breakdown of the nucleus can change the atomic mass of an atom; producing isotopes. The breakdown of an atom’s nucleus can also cause transmutation of the element. One element becomes another due to a change in the atomic number (the number of protons) Animation Tutorial Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

The Three Radioactive Emissions & Their Penetrating Power
Animation Movie Alpha Particles are the largest in size of the emissions, and consequently has the least penetrating power. Alpha particles are the size of a helium atom's nucleus. Alpha radiation: Is easily stopped by paper, foil, or a few centimeters of air. Beta Particles are smaller, and therefore have more penetrating power and danger, than alpha radiation. Beta particles are the size of an electron, extremely small. Beta radiation is stopped by sheet metal, dense wood, or heavy clothing. Gamma Radiation does not have a "size" because it is energy and not matter, (matter has mass and volume, ie. size). Gamma radiation is the most penetrating and most dangerous radiation. Gamma rays pass through most substances easily. Blocking gamma radiations takes many centimeters of lead or a think wall of concrete. Animation Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
Fusion Animation Fission Animation Fission Reaction Nuclear fission is the splitting of a massive nucleus into photons in the form of gamma rays, free neutrons, and other subatomic particles. In a typical nuclear reaction involving 235U and a neutron: 23592U + n  23692U followed by 23692U  14456Ba Kr + 3n MeV Fusion Nuclear fusion is the reaction in which two or more nuclei combine together to form a new element with higher atomic number (more protons in the nucleus). The energy released in fusion is related to E = mc 2. An example is: Deuterium–Tritium reaction. Deuterium and Tritium are both isotopes of hydrogen. 2 1Deuterium + 3 1Tritium  42He + 10n MeV What are alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay? If an atom gains a proton but loses no mass, what decay occurred? If an atom loses two protons and drops 4 amu, what decay occurred? What is the difference between fission and fusion? Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Half-Life Animation Movie
Half-life is closely related to the property of Radioactive Decay. Half-life represents the time taken for half the atoms in a radioactive substances to undergo decay and change into another nuclear form Either a radioactive daughter product or a stable form. Half-life is the time taken for the breakdown (decay) of a radioactive sample by half. The commonly given the symbol for Half-life is: t½. Thallium-201 has a half-life of 73 hours. If 4.0 mg of thallium-201 disintegrates over a period of 6.0 days and 2 hours, how many mg of thallium-201 will remain? Actinium-226 has a half-life of 29 hours. If 100 mg of actinium-226 disintegrates over a period of 58 hours, how many mg of actinium-226 will remain? An isotope of cesium (cesium-137) has a half-life of 30 years. If 1.0 g of cesium-137 disintegrates over a period of 90 years, how many g of cesium-137 would remain? Radon-224 has a half-life of 3.66 days, if you have a 50 gram sample of Radon-224 how much radon-224 will be remaining in 7.32 days? Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Springfield Central High School Chemistry
section 3: The Periodic Table Periodicity . Click on circle for interactive Periodic Table Springfield Central High School Chemistry John Levasseur centralscience.net Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

MA State Frameworks 3. Periodicity Central Concepts:
Repeating (periodic) patterns of physical and chemical properties occur among elements that define families with similar properties. The periodic table displays the repeating patterns, which are related to the atoms’ outermost electrons. 3.1 Explain the relationship of an element’s position on the periodic table to its atomic number. Identify families (groups) and periods on the periodic table. 3.2 Use the periodic table to identify the three classes of elements: metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. 3.3 Relate the position of an element on the periodic table to its electron configuration and compare its reactivity to the reactivity of other elements in the table. 3.4 Identify trends on the periodic table (ionization energy, electronegativity, and relative sizes of atoms and ions). Slide by: J. Levasseur ©

Periodic Table Movie Animation
Do you remember how to read the Periodic Table? Each element has an atomic number based on the number of protons in an atom of that element The elements are arranged by increasing atomic number The horizontal rows of the Periodic table are known as the periods. The horizontal rows of the periodic Table increase in mass with every element as you move from left to right. Groups on the Periodic Table, (aka Families) are the vertical columns Groups of elements share similar properties because they share the same valence electron number Internet Tutorial by Karl Loren How many protons does an atom of Zinc have? How many electrons does an atom of Sodium have? How many neutrons does an atom of potassium have? Animation 3.1

The 4 Modern States of Matter

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