1. Meteorological Observations and Weather Forecasting August 27 th, 2007

2. Meteorology Not a laboratory science; the most important field observation science A Natural Science Synoptic meteorology- continuously recorded Asynoptic meteorology- recording dependent upon observing platform Weather forecasting entails predicting how the present state of the atmosphere will change

3. Forecasting Weather occurs in different layers of the atmosphere Data recorded by land-based observation stations, ships, buoys, satellites, and other devices

4. Surface Weather Devices Nephoscope – surface instrument for measuring direction and speed of cloud motion; passive remote sensing Psychrometer – temperature Hygrometer – humidity Instrument shelters Anemometers – measure wind speed and direction

5. Surface Weather Devices anemometer psychrometer hygrometer

6. Weather Stations Surface observation points are supposed to be accurate for the vicinity (half way to next point); could be 37 miles away Inaccuracies: –Instrument location –Calibration –Topography –Elevation

7. Radar Radio Detection and Ranging Used in meteorology since 1940s Rain drops scatter radio waves very well Cloud particles and ice doesn’t scatter well Doppler Radar – senses frequency shifts in reflected radio waves –Gives information on velocity, location, and intensity of storm –Shows rotation –Can also detect insects, dust, and eddies

8. Radar

9. Doppler Radar

11. Lightning Detection Causes disturbance in radio waves – sferics All lightning strokes produce bursts, or pulses, of EM energy Helps locate thunderstorms Triangulation between stations Lightning can occur with rainfall –Virga- precipitation that doesn’t reach the ground

12. Aerological Observations Made in the upper atmosphere by aircraft and balloons Radiosonde- reads pressure, temperature, and relative humidity; suspended under weather balloon; can travel to Tropopause –Ground truth satellite data Dropsonde- dropped from plane; used over oceans

13. Dropsonde Radiosonde

14. LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging Used to measure speed, rotation, distance, and chemical composition of a remote target (cars, smoke plumes, clouds…)

15. Satellites Primary uses –Observing clouds and atmospheric temperatures –Tropical cyclone development –Earth color and temperature –Movement of fronts

16. Satellites GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites) –Geosynchronous –22,300 miles above equator –Can’t see above 60° latitude –Provides real-time photos – used to show cloud movement, dissipation, and development

17. Satellites Polar-orbiting satellites –Follow meridians –Have advantage of photographing clouds directly beneath satellite –530 mi above surface

18. Satellites Operate in 4 spectral regions: Visible- passive remote sensing; clouds reflect sunlight Infrared- gives temperature of radiating bodies; information about cloud-top temperature

19. Visible

20. Infrared

21. Satellites Water Vapor – distinguish between dry and humid air masses Microwaves – absorbed and emitted by rain drops –Visible through clouds –Rain appears warm and ocean surface appears cold –All objects emit radar – noise!

22. Satellites Radiometers –Used by satellites to observe clouds day and night by detecting radiation from cloud tops –Thick clouds have higher reflectivity than thin clouds

23. National Weather Service Watch – atmospheric conditions favor hazardous weather occurring for a specified region during a specified time period Warning – hazardous weather either imminent or actually occurring with in forecast are Advisories – for less hazardous conditions – wind, dust, fog, snow, sleet, and freezing rain

24. ASOS Automated Surface Observing System Operating mostly out of airports Provides continuous information on wind, temperature, pressure, cloud-base height, and runway visibility

25. AWIPS Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System High speed data modeling system Layers of maps and weather data, including satellites, Doppler radar, and ASOS Daily predictions over grid with spacing as low as 1.2 miles between points

26. Soundings Two-dimensional profile of temperature, dew-point, and winds Good for short-range forecasts Used in fog, air pollution, and wind advisories

27. Soundings

28. Models Computer enhancement – color assignment Weather models better at predicting temperature and jet stream patterns than precipitation Ensemble forecasting – run models multiple times with slightly different conditions; replication

29. What goes wrong in forecasts? Models idealize atmospheric conditions; lots of assumptions Errors at model boundaries Grid spacing can be up to 37 miles apart Water constantly changing state in atmosphere

30. Linear Interpolation Estimation of weather at intermediate sites common Use linear interpolation Only works if terrain is completely flat

31. Other non-model forecasting methods Persistence forecast Trend or steady-state Analogue Statistical Probability Climatological

32. Folklore Silver-side out –Midwestern oak leaves turn before a storm so that the underside faces into the wind –Increases in specific humidity cause leaves to become heavy and rotate out Birds roost before a storm –So do planes

33. Folklore