1. Chapter 7 The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development
Charles A. Guigno, M.A.

2. Developing Emotions
As always, culture and experience influence the norms of development.
This is especially true for emotional development after the first eight months.

3. Emotional Development: Infant Emotions
CHRISTOPHER HERWIG/GETTY IMAGES
Early emotions
High emotional responsiveness
Reactive pain and pleasure to complex social awareness
Smiling and laughing
Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces
Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity (familiarity and surprise)
Smiles All Around
Joy is universal when an infant smiles at her beaming grandparents—a smile made even better when the tongue joins in.
Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces, normally evident in infants about six weeks after birth
Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity

4. Infant Emotional Development
Anger
First expressed at around 6 months
Is healthy response to frustration (hate to be strapped in, caged, closed in or even held when they want to explore)
Sadness
Appears in first months
Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol (stress hormone)
Anger releases stress and sadness is repressed anger

5. Infant Emotional Development
Fear: Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations
Separation anxiety: clinging and crying when a familiar caregiver is about to leave.
tears, dismay, or anger occur
Normal at 1, Intensifies by 2, but if it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder
Stranger wariness: fear of unfamiliar people, especially when they move too close, too quickly.
Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened
Means that infant’s memories are working

6. Toddler Emotional Development
Toddlers emotions
Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused (towards infuriating or terrifying experiences)
Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating
Temper tantrums may appear (they are without logic, so adults react accordingly)
Sadness comes after tantrums and then comfort is helpful.
New emotions: require social awareness
Pride
Shame
Embarrassment
Disgust
Guilt
Requires an awareness of other people
Emerges from family interactions, influenced by the culture
By age 2, most toddlers display entire spectrum of emotions and begin to regulate their reactions.

7. Emotional Development
STEPHEN CHIANG/GETTY IMAGES
Mirror Recognition
Classic experiment (M. Lewis & Brooks, 1978)
Babies aged 9–24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses.
None of the babies younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them.
15- to 24-month-olds showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity.
A t 18 months, he is at the beginning of self-awareness, testing to see whether his mirror image will meet his finger
Glad to Meet You She enjoys meeting another baby, even if that baby is herself in the mirror. Later, at about 18 months, she will realize that the mirror image is herself.

8. Emotional Development
Self-awareness
Person's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people.
First 4 months
Infants have no sense of self and may see themselves as part of their mothers.
5 months
Infants begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers.
15-18 months
Emergence of the me-self
Using first-person pronouns (I, me, mine, myself, my)

9. Hush Now
Babies cry and parents soothe them the world over, while contexts shape both crying and soothing. The little girl (left) will probably quiet soon, as she is held snuggly next to her father’s body. The boy (right) is less likely to settle down, as he is surrounded by strangers in a Ukrainian contest to see which baby can crawl fastest.

10. Emotional Development: Temperament
Inborn (nature not nurture) differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation
New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS) Thomas & Chess
Started in the 1960s
By 3 months they found four categories of temperament
1) Easy 2) Difficult 3) slow-to-warm up 4) hard to classify
Categories
Easy (40%)
Difficult (10%)
Slow to warm up (15%)
Hard to classify (35%)

11. Emotional Development: Temperament
NYLS overall conclusions: Apparent dimensions
1) Effortful control (able to regulate attention and emotion, self-soothe)
2) Negative mood (fearful, angry, unhappy)
3) Exuberant (active, social, not shy)
Each of these dimensions is associated with distinctive brain patterns as well as behavior, and each affects later personality.

12. Emotional Development: Temperament
Longitudinal study of infant temperament (Fox et al., 2001)
Grouped 4-month-olds into three distinct types based on responses to fearful stimulation
Positive (exuberant)
Negative
Inhibited (fearful)
Less than half altered their responses as they grew older
Fearful infants were most likely to change
Exuberant infants were least likely to change
Maturation and child rearing has effect on inborn temperament

13. Development of Social Bonds
Attachment
Involves lasting emotional bond that one person has with another
Begins to form in early infancy and influence a person's close relationships throughout life
Overtakes synchrony
Demonstrated through proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining

14. Signs of Attachment Infants show their attachment in several ways
Proximity-seeking: Approaching and following their caregivers
Contact-maintaining: Touching, snuggling, and holding
Attachment
Universal part of inborn social nature of the human species
Specific manifestations vary depending on the culture and age of the people who are attached to each other
Proximity-seeking is evident when a baby cries if the mother closes the door when she goes to the bathroom or if a back-facing car seat prevents the baby from seeing the parent.

16. Patterns of Infant Attachment

17. Development of Social Bonds: Measuring Attachment
Strange Situation
Laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants' reactions to the stress of various adults' comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom
Key observed behaviors
Exploration of the toys. A secure toddler plays happily.
Reaction to the caregiver's departure. A secure toddler misses the caregiver.
Reaction to the caregiver's return. A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver's reappearance.

18. Development of Social Bonds: Attachment Types
Secure attachment
Relationship (type B) in which infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver
Insecure-avoidant attachment
Pattern of attachment (type A) in which infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

19. Development of Social Bonds: Attachment Types
Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment
Pattern of attachment (type C) in which anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when an infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion
Disorganized attachment
Type of attachment (type D) that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return

22. Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development
Psychoanalytic Theory
FREUD: Oral and anal stages
Oral stage (first year)
Anal stage (second year)
Potential conflicts
Oral fixation
Anal personality (disputed by current developmentalists)
FREUD: Oral and anal stages
Oral stage (first year): The mouth is the young infant's primary source of gratification
Anal stage (second year): Infant's main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them)
Potential conflicts:
Oral fixation: If a mother frustrates her infant's urge to suck, the child may become an adult who is stuck (fixated) at the oral stage (e.g. eats, drinks, chews, bites, or talks excessively)
Anal personality: Overly strict or premature toilet training may result in an adult with an unusually strong need for control, regularity and cleanliness

23. Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial Theory
ERIKSON: Trust and autonomy stages
Trust versus mistrust
Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies
Early problems
An adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy) can be created

24. Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development
Behaviorism
BANDURA: Social learning theory
Parents mold an infant's emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment
Behavior patterns acquired by observing the behavior of others
Demonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study
Hammering Bobo
These images are stills from the film of Bandura’s original study of social learning, in which frustrated 4-year-olds imitated the behavior they had observed an adult perform.
The children used the same weapon as the adult, with the same intent—whether that involved hitting the doll with a hammer, shooting it