1. Gene Expression From a gene to a protein

2. Central Dogma (Crick 1958) Determines the genetic flow of information

4. Central Dogma First step in decoding a genetic message from DNA is to copy (transcribe) it into mRNA, which contains the code for making proteins Second step in decoding, is to decode mRNA into a polypeptide chain which builds a protein.

5. Functions of a Protein Functions of Protein: StructuralStructural –muscle, hair ChemicalChemical –antibodies, hormones, enzymes (regulate all chemical reactions in cells)

6. Proteins Proteins are made, from mRNA, by joining amino acids into long polypeptides (which are proteins) –There are only 20 naturally occurring amino acids

7. Review of DNA DNA is the genetic material DNA codes for different genes –Genes are codes for a protein which determines different traits

8. DNA is made up of nucleotides Which contain: - a phosphate group - a sugar (deoxyribose) - a nitrogenous base

9. Structure of DNA

10. RNA Involved in protein synthesis Made up of nucleotides: –A phosphate group –A sugar (ribose) –Nitrogenous bases (RNA only has A, U, C, G there is no T!)

11. Types of RNA There are three main types: –Messenger RNA (mRNA) –Transfer RNA (tRNA) –Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

12. mRNA Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries copies of instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins.

13. rRNA Ribosomes are made up of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

14. tRNA During protein construction, transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers each amino acid to the ribosome.

15. Transcription Flow of info: DNA -> mRNA Location: Nucleus mRNA is produced by copying part of the DNA Where does the mRNA go? –Cytoplasm/Ribosomes

16. Transcription Messenger RNA is transcribed in the nucleus, and then enters the cytoplasm where it attaches to a ribosome.

17. The Genetic Code The genetic code is read from mRNA mRNA is only 4 letters A, U, C, and G The code is read 3 letters/bases at a time Codon= three consecutive nucleotides which are specific for an animo acid

18. Codons

19. Translation Flow of info: mRNA -> Proteins Location: Cytoplasm/Ribosomes Translation is decoding mRNA into a polypeptide chain(protein)

20. Step 1 Translation mRNA attaches to a ribosome The start codon (AUG) is located by tRNA The matching tRNA, containing the anitcodon UAC, will bind to AUG The tRNA carries the animo acid specific to the mRNA sequence AUG, which is methionine

21. Step 2 The ribosome binds new tRNA molecules and amino acids as it moves along the mRNA.

22. Step 3 As each new tRNA enters the ribosome, one leaves. Before tRNA can leave the ribosome, the animo acids will bond together to make a polypeptide chain

23. Step 4 The process continues until the ribosome reaches a stop codon.

24. Mutations Changes in genetic material Many have little effect on gene expression or protein function A few can be harmful and then some are good –Harmful mutations can cause cancer and genetic disorders –Good mutation can make altered proteins which may be beneficial in different/changing environments

25. Point Mutations Mutation of 1 or more nucleotides –Substitution – changing one base, usually only changes one amino acid –Insertion – addition of 1 or more bases, causes frameshifts –Deletion – removal of 1 or more bases, causes frameshifts

26. Point Mutations

27. Kinds of Mutations Substitutions usually affect no more than a single amino acid.

29. Chromosomal Mutations Change in number or structure of a chromosome –Deletion – loss of all or part of a chromosome –Duplication – extra copies of parts of chromosomes –Inversion – reverse direction of parts of chromosomes –Translocation – chromosome breaks and attaches to another

30. Chromosomal Mutations Occur during Meiosis –Prophase I –Anaphase I or Anaphase II

32. Nondisjuction Error in meiosis in which chromosomes fail to separate.

33. Changes to Chromosome Number Monosomy 2n-1 –45 chromosomes –Turners (XO) Trisomy 2n+1 –47 chromosomes –Down syndrome(trisomy 21), Klinefelters (XXY), Triple X (XXX), Jacobs (XYY) Polyploidy (Triploid, Tetraploid, etc)

34. Turners (45, XO) 1 in 3,000 female births Sterile females

35. Down Syndrome Mothers in early 20s 1 in 1,500 births Mothers over 35 1 in 70 births Mothers over 45 1 in 25 births

36. Klinefelters (XXY) 2 in 1000 male births Sterile males

37. Jacobs (XYY) 1 in 1000 male births Tall Lower mental ability Tendency for aggressivenes s