1. Policy Studies in Education: Definition of the Field TSANG Wing-kwong Ho Tim Building, Rm 416 Ext. 6922 wktsang@cuhk.edu.hk WWW.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~wktsang EDD5213

2. Policy: In Search of Definition zThomas Dye’s Definition: “Public Policy is concerned with what governments do, why they do it, and what difference it makes. It is about political (/social) science(s) and the ability of this discipline to describe, analyze, and explain public policy. Public policy is whatever government choose to do or not to do.”

3. zStuart S. Negal’s Definition “Public Policy analysis can be defined as determining which of various alternative public or governmental policy will most achieve a given set of goals in light of the relations between the policies and the goals. Policy: In Search of Definition

4. z“That definition brings out four key elements of policy evaluation which are: yGoals, including normative constraints and relative weights for the goals. yPolicies, programs, projects, decisions, options, means, or other alternatives that are available for achieving the goals. yRelations between the policies and the goals, including relations that are established by intuition, authority, statistics, observation, deduction, guesses, or other means yDraw a conclusion as to which policy or combination of policies is best to adopt in light of the goals, policies, and relations. Stuart S. Negal’s Definition (cont’d)

5. Policy: In Search of Definition zThe Interactionist Definition “The conscious attempt of officials, legislators, and interested publics to find constructive responses to the needs and pathologies which they observe in their surrounding culture.” (The National Academy of Education)

6. Policy: In Search of Definition zAron Wildovsky’s Definition “Policy is a process as well as a product. It is used to refer to a process of decision-making and also the product of that process.” (1979)

7. Policy: In Search of Definition zFrank Fischer’s Definition y“Public policy is a discursive construct rather than a self-defining phenomenon.” (Fischer, 2003, p. 69) ” “We define policy as a political agreement on a course of action (or inaction) designed to resolve or mitigate problems on the political agenda. This agreement…is an intellectual constructs rather than a self-defining phenomenon. Discursively constructed, there can be no inherently unique decision, institutions, or actors constituting public policy that are to be identified, uncovered, and explained. Public policy, as such, is an analytical category with a substantive content cannot be simply researched; more fundamentally, it has to be interpreted.” (p.60)

8. Policy: In Search of Definition z Stephen J. Ball’s Definition “Policy is clearly a matter of the ‘authoritative allocation of values’; policies are the operational statements of values, ‘statements of prescriptive intent’ (Kogan 1975 p.55). But values do not float free of their social context. We need to ask whose values are validated in policy, and whose are not. Thus, ‘The authoritative allocation of values draws our attention to the centrality of power and control in the concept of policy’ (Prunty 1985 p.135). Policies project images of an ideal society (education policies project definitions of what counts as education).”

9. Constituents of Public Policy zDecision Makers zActors yAdministrative Officials yProgram administrators yFront-line service deliverers yRecipients yStakeholders yEnd users zPolicy Goal zPolicy Means and Measures zPolicy Causality and Conclusion

10. Constituents of Public Policy zPolicy Implementation yStick: Regulations yCarrot: Economic policy instruments ySermon: Information, education and persuasion zPolicy Outcomes, Consequences, and Evaluation zThe Prevailed Values yPolicy as text yPolicy as signifiers yPolicy as ideological apparatus

11. Policy Study: Definition of the Field zStudy of the PolicyzStudy for the Policy

12. Policy Study: Definition of the Field zStudy of the Policy yStudy of the policy content yStudy of the policy process yStudy of the policy outcome yStudy of the authoritatively allocated values yStudy of the policy discourse

13. Policy Study: Definition of the Field zStudy for the Policy yStudy for policy making xCausal analysis xFeasibility study xCost-effectiveness analysis xCost-benefit analysis xCost-utility analysis yStudy for policy advocacy yStudy for policy criticism

14. Perspectives in Policy Studies in Education zAnalytical-technical perspective in policy studies in education yEpistemological assumptions xEmpirically, realities under study are observable, recordable, measurable and calculable xAnalytically, the phenomena under study are dividable into causally connected parts, which in turn form a comprehensive whole xMethodologically, propositions under investigation are verifiable or even repeatable similar to laboratorial experiments in natural sciences xResults and conclusions drawn from studies are universally applicable to great varieties of situations

15. Perspectives in Policy Studies in Education zAnalytical-technical perspective in policy studies in education (cont’d) yPractical assumptions xPolicy makings are technical and rational choices of the best solutions to the well identified and defined problems xTechnical procedures of intervention can therefore be specified and even standardized xPolicy means and measures used to intervene can manipulated and engineered xThe policy environments to be engineered will respond and react according to engineering designs xDesigned policy effects are recordable and calculable neutrally and objectively as stock taking and auditing

16. Perspectives in Policy Studies in Education zAnalytical-technical perspective in policy studies in education (cont’d) yHence, policy studies and practices are comprehended as scientific and engineering projects

17. Perspectives in Policy Studies in Education zInterpretative-political perspective in policy studies in education yEpistemological assumptions xRealities under study are socially and culturally constructed realities rather than objectively and naturally preexisting realities xPhenomena under study are embedded with socially and culturally attributed or even imputed meanings and values xMethodologically, policy studies are to understand the meanings and valued embedded in policy environments and phenomena

18. Perspectives in Policy Studies in Education zInterpretative-political perspective in policy studies in education (cont’d) yPractical assumptions xPolicy makings are political deliberations, negotiation, checks and balances and building consensuses of different or even contradictory interpretations of policy realities and phenomena xPolicy implementations are processes of (second round) negotiation, persuasions, and team-building in which policy mandates are specified and localized into social, political and cultural environments which policy measures are supposed to take holds and materialized

19. Perspectives in Policy Studies in Education zInterpretative-political perspective in policy studies in education yPractical assumptions (cont’d) xResponses and reactions of policy environments are not automatic but are open to negotiations, resistances or even deliberately alterations xPolicy evaluations are yet another round of interpretations and negotiations on the effectiveness, benefits, and pitfalls of the policy measures concerned

20. Perspectives in Policy Studies in Education zInterpretative-political perspective in policy studies in education (cont’d) yHence, policy studies and practices are political projects of negotiations, checks and balances, compromises and trade-offs

21. Perspectives in Policy Studies in Education zDiscursive-critical perspective in policy studies in education yEpistemological assumptions xRealities under study are socially and culturally constructed realities hypostatized, frozen and probably distorted by given historical, social and political institutions xPhenomena under study are assumed to be power- hypostatized and institution-biased in favor and/or against different groupings in given historical and social contexts xMethodologically, policy studies are to reveal and critique the systemic distortions and biases hypostatized and legitimatized in given policy phenomena

22. Perspectives in Policy Studies in Education zDiscursive-critical perspective in policy studies in education yPractical assumptions xPolicy makings are processes of finding and constituting resolutions to rectify the systemic distortions and biases embedded in given policy realities xPolicy implementations are coercive processes of redistributions of resources and powers in favor of the “suppressed” groups and against the “suppressing groups” existing in particular policy phenomena yHence, policy studies and practices are critical projects of critiques and rectifications of systemic distortions and biases in given policy realities

23. Topic 2 Policy Studies in Education: Definition of the Field End