1. Physiology of big hemispheres

3. FUNCTIONS OF THE BASAL GANGLIA These ganglia perform essentially all the motor functions, even controlling the voluntary movements in much the same manner that the motor cortex of the human being controls voluntary movements. Further more, in the cat, and to a lesser extent in the dog, decortication removes only the discrete types of motor functions and does not interfere with the animal's ability to walk, eat, fight, develop rage, have periodic sleep and wakefulness, and even participate naturally in sexual activities.

6. Cycle of putamen Provide an action of separate movement, which need previous studying. It starts from premotor and addition motor zones of cortex go to putamen, than to globus pallidus. After that can be two ways: It starts from premotor and addition motor zones of cortex go to putamen, than to globus pallidus. After that can be two ways: 1) from globus pallidus impulses go to thalamus; 2) from globus pallidus impulses go to substantia nigra and than to thalamus. From thalamus impulses go to primary motor zone.

7. Cycle of caudate nucleus Regulate the moving behavior (the model of movement). It starts from associative zones of cortex go to caudate nucleus. After that can be two ways: After that can be two ways: 1) from caudate nucleus impulses go to globus pallidus; 1) from caudate nucleus impulses go to globus pallidus; 2) from caudate nucleus impulses go to putamen and than to globus pallidus. From globus pallidus impulses go to thalamus and than to premotor and addition motor zones.

9. Neural Communication Dopamine Pathways Serotonin Pathways

10. Descending Pathways The direct pathways (corticobulbar and corticospinal) are indicated by the blue arrow. The indirect pathways and their interconnections are indicated by the red arrows.

12. Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract This tract transmits proprioceptive information from the thorax, upper limbs, and upper lumbar region to the cerebellum. Lines on the inset indicate levels of section.

13. Cerebellum Connected to brainstem by cerebellar peduncles White matter (arbor vitae) visible in sagittal section Sits atop the 4th ventricle

14. FUNCTION OF CEREBELLUM 1. Regulation of posture and equilibrium, and muscle tone 2. Coordination of posture and slow determined movements 3. Coordination of fast determined movements

15. Cerebellar Inputs and Outputs The 3 deep nuclei are: –(1) fastigial - concerned with balance; sends information mainly to the vestibular and reticular nuclei –(2) dentate and (3) interposed - both concerned with voluntary movement; send axons mainly to the thalamus and red nucleus All 3 receive inputs from sensory afferent tracts and from the cerebellar cortex.

18. FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF CORTEX SENSORY AREAS OF THE CORTEX The somatic senses include sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, body position, and similar perceptions that do not require complex sensory organs. The special senses include vision, hearing, and other types of perception that require complex sensory organs. The postcentral gyrus serves as a primary area for the general somatic senses. Under central gyrus presents secondary somatic sensory area. It also has topic structure.

19. Functional Regions of the Lateral Side of the Left Cerebral Cortex

20. Demonstration of Cortical Activities During Speech The figures show the pathway for reading and naming something that is seen, such as reading aloud. PET scans show the areas of the brain that are most active during various phases of speech. Red indicates the most active areas; blue indicates the least active areas.

22. Topography of the Somatic Sensory Cortex Cerebral cortex seen in coronal section on the left side of the brain. The figure of the body (homunculus) depicts the nerve distributions; the size of each body region shown indicates relative innervation. The cortex occurs on both sides of the brain but appears on only one side in this illustration. The inset shows the somatic sensory region of the left hemisphere (green).

23. Topography of the Primary Motor Cortex Cerebral cortex seen in coronal section on the left side of the brain. The figure of the body (homunculus) depicts the nerve distributions; the size of each body region shown indicates relative innervation.

26. Cerebral Medullary Tracts

29. The (a) alpha and (b) beta rhythms of the EEG. EEG

30. Effects of Aging on the Nervous System As a person ages, there’s a gradual decline in sensory function because the number of sensory neurons declines, the function of remaining neurons decreases, and CNS processing decreases. In the skin, free nerve endings and hair follicle receptors remain largely unchanged with age. Meissner’s corpuscles and pacinian corpuscles, however, decrease in number. The capsules of those that remain become thicker and structurally distorted and, therefore, exhibit reduced function. As a result of these changes in Meissner’s corpuscles and pacinian corpuscles, elderly people are less conscious of something touching or pressing on the skin, have a decreased sense of two-point discrimination, and have a more difficult time identifying objects by touch. These functional changes leave elderly people more prone to skin injuries and with a greater sense of isolation.