1. Harry Williams, Geomorphology1 Diastrophism - Folded, Faulted and Tilted Strata. Introduction Three types of deformation result from subjecting rock to stress: 1. Folds - bending of rock without breaking (including tilting). 2. Faults - fracture of rock with displacement. 3. Joints - fracture of rock without displacement. Joints affect the resistance of the rock to erosion by weakening the rock and making it susceptible to weathering. FOLD FAULT

2. Harry Williams, Geomorphology2 EXFOLIATION/UNLOADING JOINTS IN FORMERLY DEEPLY-BURIED ROCK, UNCOVERED BY EROSION.

3. Harry Williams, Geomorphology3

4. 4 CONTRACTION JOINTS IN VOLCANIC ROCK. COOLING LAVA CONTRACTS AND FORMS HEXAGONAL FRACTURES (COLUMNAR JOINTING)

5. Harry Williams, Geomorphology5 STRESS JOINTS CAUSED BY TECTONIC MOVEMENTS

6. Harry Williams, Geomorphology6 Only deformation which includes movement is directly involved in landform development, so the rest of the lecture concentrates on folds, faults and tilted beds. Behavior of Rock Under Stress During tectonic movements, rocks may be subjected to 3 kinds of stress: COMPRESSIVE, TENSIONAL & SHEAR The kind of deformation that results depends primarily on 4 factors: 1. Confining pressure 2. Temperature 3. Strength of rock 4. Time

7. Harry Williams, Geomorphology7 Rocks under high confining pressure and temperature tend to become DUCTILE and flow rather than fracture when stress is applied. For this reason, it is generally true that FOLDING tends to occur at depth in the crust where confining pressure and temperature are both high. MARBLE DEFORMATION fracture flow

8. Harry Williams, Geomorphology8 Many folds in orogenic belts have in fact formed at depth and later been exposed at the surface by erosion of overlying rocks. On the other hand, rocks at or near the surface of the earth are under low confining pressure and low temperature, and tend to be BRITTLE and fracture when subjected to stress. FOLDING FAULTING

9. Harry Williams, Geomorphology9 mountains hills cliffsridges Strike and Dip Geologic structures produced by deformation are 3-dimensional (most structures are basically composed of inclined planes - tilted beds alone, the tilted limb of a fold, an inclined fault plane). The geometry of inclined planes is described by the properties of strike and dip:

10. Harry Williams, Geomorphology10 Most geological information for a region is in the form of 2-dimensional geologic maps - which show the outcrop pattern and, ideally, contain strike, dip and fault symbols (see below):

11. Harry Williams, Geomorphology11 However, many of these maps (especially in the U.S.) do not usually include many details on underlying geologic structures, including strike and dip symbols.

12. Harry Williams, Geomorphology12 Some maps, usually smaller scale ones, have cross-sections along selected lines to show the geometry of the underlying strata. N.W. S.E. CRATON

13. Harry Williams, Geomorphology13 If strike and dip is not included on the map, often this information can be deduced: the outcrop trend gives the strike; “the law of v's” gives the direction of dip and some indication of the dip angle (the larger the V, the lower the angle of dip - more later on outcrop patterns).

14. Harry Williams, Geomorphology14 Classification of Folds Folds = most common type of deformation (most strata is folded/tilted to an extent, whereas faults are more scattered). Main types:

15. Harry Williams, Geomorphology15 Plunging folds dip into the earth at an angle. The resulting outcrop pattern resembles zig-zag lines.

16. Harry Williams, Geomorphology16 Basins and domes are special kinds of folds, where all the strata either dip away (dome) or towards (basin) the center.

17. Harry Williams, Geomorphology17 Classification of Faults.