1. Atmospheric Aerosols as Indicators of Global Biogeochemical Changes Rudolf Husar Washington University St. Louis, USA Draft Presentation Prepared for the Induction into the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Budapest, June 23, 1998

2. The Physiology and Health Care of the Earth System The physicians evaluate a patient’s health by measuring the temperature, pulse rate, the cholesterol level and other vital signs. For diagnosis, doctors use many tools, like x-ray images, ultrasound scans, usually in combination. The Earth is also like a living organism. According to the British scientist James Lovelock, it has become necessary to monitor the health of planet Earth. Today's earth scientists evaluate the physiology of planet earth also by monitoring the temperature, carbon dioxide, ozone, biomass, cloudiness, and many other parameters as the vital signs of the interconnected Earth System. The observational instruments of earth sciences include thermometers, chemical sampling analysis of air land and water, as well as earth observing satellites.

3. Response to Environmental Changes Sensing and recognition of the changes (monitoring). The physical and chemical state of the Earth’s environment is constantly changing. The Earth is physicaly aging, and at the same time evolution is changing the bioshere. Some of the changes occur slowly in a steady fashion andthey are forseeable. However, many bio-geochemical changes occur quickly, unexpectedly, and they unevenly distributed in space and time. From human point of view, many of these changesare catasthrophic events. The ievitable and unforseeable environmental changes require the following major steps: Explaining of the causes of the changes (science). If necessary, act in response to these changes (management). Some refer to the above three steps as necessary conditions for sustainable development. This is logical since all living organisms use this type of sensory feedback to maintain their existence. Sensory feed back

4. Earth in Balance, Earth Changing The basic elements of life including carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium are in constant circulation between the earth’s major environmental compartments: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. These earth’s compartments remain in balance as long as the rate of flow of matter and energy in and out of the compartments is unchanged. On the other hand, changes in the environmental compartments will occur if the circulation (in and out flow) of the substances is perturbed. For example, the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been increasing because the rate of input is larger than the rate of output from the atmosphere.

5. Major Biogeochemical Processes Visualized by Aerosols Volcanoes Dust storms FiresAnthropogenic pollution Dust storms, forest fires, volcanic emissions and athropogenic fuel combustion are major biogeochemical processes that cause the flow of substances on Earth. Furthermore, these processes are producing visible aerosols in form of dust, smoke, and haze. The quantity and spatial-temporal distribution of dust and smoke and haze can be used to charecterize the flow of substances through the atmosphere.

6. Just like the human eye, satellite sensors detect the total amount of solar radiation that is reflected from the earth’s surface (R o ) and backscattered by the atmosphere from aerosol, pure air, and clouds. A simplified expression for the radiation detected by a satellite sensor (I/I o ) is : I / I o = R o e -  + (1- e -  ) P Satellite Detection of Aerosols Currently, satellite sensors can detect different aspects of aerosols over the globe daily. Polar orbiting sun synchronous satellite always views the sunny side of the Earth. Geo-synchronous satellite always observes the same location on Earth. where  is the aerosol optical thickness and P the angular light scattering probability.

7. Dust Storms Dust storms are responsible for the transport of Aeolian dust from one part of the Earth to another. Loess, the fertile silty yellowish brown soil, covers about 10% of the land surface of the Earth. In China, for example, 100 meter deep layers of loess are found. The source areas of loess are the hot and temperate deserts. The dust particles are removed from the surface of sand dunes by the force of the wind. The chemical composition of the dust is similar to the composition of the sand.

8. Sahara Dust Over the Atlantic The smaller dust particles in the size range 1-5 mm are transported several thousand kilometers from their source. For this reason, large quantities of Sahara dust can be found in South America and east Asian dust over North America and Greenland.

9. Dust as Drought Indicators Monitoring the atmospheric dust concentration and dust flow, allows the estimation of the magnitude of the Aeolian dust transport, drought conditions, desertification and other changes occuring over arid regions.

10. Fires Vegetation fires are important to the ecology of many terrestrial systems because they cycle many trace elements. Fires are also major sources of atmospheric trace gases and aerosols. Nowadays vegetation fires are initiated mostly by humans for land clearing, agricultural harvest clearing, savanna burning for nomadic agriculture.

11. Smoke from Biomass Burning The monitoring of smoke aerosol from forest, grass, and agricultural fires can reveal the location, magnitude, and seasonality of biomass burning. The sub-Sahara savanna region has thousands of small fires every year in the December-February season. It produces a thick and rather uniform smoke layer of several thousand kilometer size. The prevailing wind transport the smoke across the Atlantic Ocean to South America. Occasionally, the savanna smoke and the Sahara dust clouds overlap. The main atmospheric removal mechanism of the smoke, dust, and haze is through clouds and precipitation.

12. Volcanic Aerosol Volcanic aerosols are composed of grayish volcanic ash which settles out within a day or less. The lasting volcanic aerosol (0.5-1 µm) is due to sulfuric acid that is formed in the stratosphere from the emitted SO 2 gas

13. By monitoring the pattern of volcanic aerosols one can determine the magnitude and spatial impact of volcanic events. Volcanic events are not influenced by human actions but they tend to mask out more subtle changes man-induced changes. History of volcanic aerosol optical depth, 1850-1900 shows sporadic events several times a century. North-south dispersion and removal of volcanic aerosol, 1981-1994 shows that they reside in the stratosphere for 1-2 years and spreads throughout the globe

14. Humanity as biogeochemical agent During the last century human activities have significantly influenced the Earth’s biogeochemical balance. The combustion of fossil fuels, coal, oil and gas has liberated large quantities of carbon, sulfur, and trace metals from its long term lithospheric reservoir and transferred it to the atmosphere. In North America, for example, the per capita sulfur emission is 1/2 kg per day. This large quantity of mobilized sulfur not only pollutes the air, but after deposition may acidify the soil, and may harm the plants.

15. Anthropogenic Pollution Central Europe India ChinaEastern U.S.

16. The 1998 Asian Dust and the Central American Smoke Events In the spring of 1998 two major global/continental-scale aerosol events occurred that illustrate the 1) range of transport; 2) the utility of satellites to detect the early phases and to monitor the evolution of regional-scale catastrophic aerosol events; 3) the ability of the scientific community to aid the air quality management process.

17. The Asian Dust Event of April 1998 On April 15th, 1998 an unusually intense dust storm began in the western Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang, just in time for the east Asian dust season. CNN reported that 12 people were missing from that singular event. On April 19th another dust front moved across China. By April 20th, the elongated dust cloud covered a 1000 mile stretch of the east coast of China. The Chinese Academy of Sciences reported a yellow rain in Beijing.

18. Transport over Pacific On April 23rd and 24th, the dust storm was rapidly moving across the Pacific Ocean. The dust cloud appeared as a yellow dye and visualized its own path across the Pacific.

19. Impact of Asian Dust on North America By April 27th, the dust cloud rolled into North America. Goes-10 and SeaWiFS images indicate that the dust plume split once it reached land - one branch heading southward along the California coast and another branch continued eastward across the Canadian Rockies.Goes-10 SeaWiFS

20. Science - Management Interaction during the Asian Dust Event As the Asian dust has crossed the Pacific Ocean, the scientific community has alerted several state air pollution control agencies on the Pacific Coast. An interactive Asian Dust web site was set up and within two days, over 40 scientists and managers have reported their observations as well as satellite and surface data directly into the shared workspace on the web. A virtual community was created spontaneously addressing the dust event. The air quality managers have used the website for up-to-date scientific information and discussion. Air pollution advisories and press releases have also directed the public and the media to the Asian dust website for further scientific information. The Asian Dust event has clearly demonstrated that the available current space-based aerosol monitoring data can enable virtual communities of scientists and managers to detect and follow major aerosol events and to support air quality management through JITERS (Just In Time Environmentally Relevant Science).

21. Forest Fires over Central America Throughout the spring of 1998, thousands of fires in Central America have been burning with twice the intensity of normal springtime fires. Thick smoke has been lingering over southern Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras and adjacent oceans throughout the spring season. Several times smoke from the Central American fires drifted northward into the USA and Canada and caused exceedances of the PM standard, health alerts, and impairment of air traffic due to thick haze.

22. Smoke passes over Eastern North America. On May 12, a remarkably thick pall of smoke has accumulated over the entire Gulf of Mexico a swift journey to the north along the Mississippi Valley. By May 15, the smoke pall had stretched out from Central America Hudson Bay. Over the next two days the smoke pall was literally shoved eastward by an approaching cold front, resulting in a remarkable contrast of haziness (smokiness) in the front and behind the front. On May 17, virtually the entire Eastern Seaboard was blanketed by a pall of smoke.May 12May 15May 17

23. SeaWiFS View of the Smoke GOES 8 View of the Smoke

25. Science - Management Interaction Regarding the Central American Smoke Event The fires and the smoke from the Central American fires has been observed with keen interest by broad scientific community using multiple satellite sensors. When the Central American smoke was transported to the North and impacted most of the Eastern US and Eastern Canada, an interactive website was set up with a purpose of cataloging and integrating the available web-based information resources. The air quality managers at EPA and the states have monitored the daily smoke pattern and issued heath advisories. Also, the smoke event coincided with ozone levels above the air quality standard and the states have requested ‘natural event’ exemptions from EPA. The scientific support to EPA includes deleting the locations and times where such exemptions are warranted.

26. Summary: Aerosols as Biogeochemical Indicators Aerosols are suitable indicators of dust movement, fire and smoke, volcanic emissions and anthropogenic fossil fuel combustion. Each source type has a unique signiture either in size distribution, chemical composition, or optical properties. Aerosols can be differentiated by source type, chemical composition, optical properties, or spatio-temporal pattern. Aerosols effectively scatter visible light from the sun. Aerosol global monitoring systems already exist. In particular, space-based sensors exist that can monitor the aerosol characteristics globally every day and over decades. The main problems arise from the fact that the remote sensor are retrieving only integral properties. True properties can only be inferred by “inversion” of convoluted integrals. Aerosols are highly variable in space, time, optical properties. It takes many different high resolution sensors to fully characterize global distribution. Multiple aerosol types may coexist at any location.

27. GAIN Global Aerosol Information Network Biomass burning - biogeochemists Vulcanologists Radiative effects-Climate Change Pollution monitoring- Control Health effects Aeolian dust - geologists Recommendations: Global Aerosol Watch with GAIN We recommend the establishment of internet-based global aerosol watch system, where a few experienced observers distributed all over the world would monitor the daily aerosol pattern for interesting dust, smoke, or haze aerosols. They would utilize the publicly available on-line satellite, surface monitoring, and meteorological modeling data provided by many countries. When an interesting event occurs,the relevant science and management communities would be alerted through the Global Aerosol Monitoring Network (GAIN). Given the alert the community could initiate more intense monitoring and prepare the public for the developing risks. The GAIN system could also be used for communication, cooperation (sharing of internet-based information resources) and for coordination.

28. Acknowledgements This is to express my deep appreciation to my wife Janja who has supported every aspect of this work. Our son Attila has processed the first set of global oceanic aerosol maps. Our daughter Maja has maintained the Asian-Dust website. Special thanks are directed to the web-based virtual communities on Asian dust and Central American smoke. Their willingness to share raw data sets a great example for future spontaneous collaboration. This research was supported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

29. Human actions have also been altering some of the main natural biogeochemical processes. The enhaced intentional burning of forests has increased the flow of biological substances over many parts of the world. The spreading of deserts due to desertification is also likely to influence the flow of windblown dust.