1. The Historical Context of Contemporary International Relations
Chapter 2
The Historical Context of Contemporary International Relations

2. Key Developments Before 1648
Sovereign Greek city-states reach height of power in 400 B.C.; carry out cooperative functions through diplomacy and classic power politics
Roman Empire (50 B.C.-400 A.D.) originates imperialism, develops practice of expanding territorial reach; empire is united through law and language, while allowing some local identity
Middle Ages ( ) witness centralization of religious authority in Church, with decentralization in political and economic life
Late Middle Ages ( ) foster development of transnational networks during age of exploration

7. Emergence Of The Westphalian System
Treaty of Westphalia (1648) ended Thirty Years War in Europe
Religious war fought mainly in Germany; initially, conflict between Protestants and Catholics (in Holy Roman Empire); grew into larger conflict involving major European powers
Effects of Treaty:
European states embraced notion of sovereignty
Monarchs have political authority, not Catholic Church
Sovereign enjoy rights within own territory

9. Sovereignty: Idea and Practice
French philosopher Jean Bodin:
Sovereignty is “the distinguishing mark of the sovereign in that he cannot in any way be subject to the commands of another, for it is he who makes law for the subject, abrogates law already made, and amends obsolete law”
Limits to sovereignty: divine or natural law, covenants, contracts

10. Key Developments After Westphalia
Notion and practice of sovereignty develops
Centralized control of institutions under military control
Capitalist economic system emerges

11. Europe in the 19th Century: Key Principles
Legitimacy: moral and legal right to rule, based on law, custom, heredity, or consent of governed; rulers subject to limitations imposed by man
Nationalism: people share devotion and allegiance to nation; usually based on shared characteristics of people, common religion, language, historical experience, etc.

13. Developments in 19th Century Europe
Concert(s) of Europe: following Napoleon, great powers meet periodically (Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia) to reach agreement on problems threatening peace among European states
initially aimed at containing France, achieve balance of power; maintain territorial arrangements made at Congress of Vienna ( ); kept relative peace for about 40 years
Congress of Berlin (1878); Berlin Conference (1884)
19th Century European “concert” held together by core beliefs of superiority and fear of revolution from below
Relative international peace; no wars among great powers

14. Explaining 19th Century Peace
European solidarity: Christian, “civilized”
Elites united by fear of revolution from below
Preoccupied by unification in Germany and Italy
Engaged in territorial expansion/colonialism outside of Europe; competition exported
Balance of power
States with relatively equal power
Form alliances to counteract powerful states

15. Solidification Of Alliances: The Breakdown
Russia invades Turkey in 1877
Conflict escalates in Latin America
Competition for territory at Congress of Berlin
Emerging Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, Italy)
Emerging Dual Alliance (France, Russia)
World War I

16. Key Developments in 19th Century Europe
From revolutions emerge two concepts: absolutist rule subject to limitations and nationalism
System managed by balance of power brings relative peace to Europe
European imperialism in Asia and Africa helps to maintain European balance of power
Balance of power breaks down due to solidifications of alliances, resulting in World War I

19. Key Developments in the Interwar Years
Three empires collapse: Russia by revolution, the Austro-Hungarian Empire by dismemberment, and the Ottoman Empire by external wars and internal turmoil, leads to resurgence of nationalisms
German dissatisfaction with World War I settlement leads to fascism; finds allies in Italy and Japan
Weak League of Nations unable to respond to Japanese, Italian and German aggression, and widespread economic unrest.

21. In The Aftermath Of World War II
Emergence of two superpowers: U.S. and Soviet Union
Decline of Europe
Cold War with differences in geopolitical national interests and in ideology (capitalism vs. socialism)
Gradual end of colonialism
Cold War played out through third- parties/clients/proxies
Development of NATO; Warsaw Pact

23. IMPORTANT EVENTS OF THE COLD WAR 1

25. The Cold War as a Series of Major Crises
Berlin blockade (1949)
Korean War ( )
Cuban missile crisis (1962)
Vietnam War
Proxy wars in Middle East, Africa, Asia, South/Central America

26. Explaining the Cold War as a “Long Peace”
John Gaddis
Key role of nuclear deterrence (MAD)
Bipolarity led to system stability
U.S. economic hegemony, able to maintain stability
Economic liberalism
Long historical cycles

27. Key Developments in the Post-Cold War Era
Changes are made in Soviet/Russian foreign policy, withdrawal from Afghanistan, Angola in late 1980’s
Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990; multilateral response unites former Cold War adversaries
Glasnost and perestroika continue in Russia

28. Key Developments in the Post-Cold War Era (cont.)
Yugoslavia disintegrates into independent states; civil war in Bosnia and Kosovo; U.N. and NATO respond
Widespread ethnic conflict arises in Central and Western Africa, Central Asia, Indian subcontinent
Al Qaeda carries out attacks against U.S. and interests abroad; U.S. and coalition forces respond militarily in Afghanistan
U.S. invades and occupies Iraq
Terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia, Spain, and Great Britain

29. Discussion Questions
1. Explain the importance of the Treaty of Westphalia for international relations. What significant concepts and principles informed the treaty? What notable changes in international relations did the treaty signal or set in motion? Discuss how contemporary international relations might be different (or not) without the Treaty of Westphalia, and provide support for your answer. 2. What are the most important reasons for the relative peace that characterized nineteenth-century Europe? Why do you consider these particular reasons to be most important? Do you think any of the principles of nineteenth-century European politics are applicable to contemporary international relations? Why or why not?

30. Discussion questions, II
3. What started the Cold War, and how was this war different from previous ones within the international system? Now that the Cold War is over, what do you think are some of its lasting effects on U.S.-Russian relations and/or international relations more broadly? 4. John Lewis Gaddis and a number of other scholars have referred to the Cold War as “the long peace.” Do you agree or disagree with this characterization? Explain your answer and include in your response a discussion of some of the reasons for Gaddis’s assertion. 5. Did the end of the Cold War really mark the beginning of a “New World Order,” or did it have little effect on the general course of international relations? Present a response to this question that draws on your knowledge of history and uses specific events from recent years to support your position.