1. Qualitative research: Interviews Chapter 10.2

2. Interviews Semi-structured interviews: Involves the preparation of an interview guide that lists themes that should be explored during the interview. Can be analyzed using several theoretical approaches. Uses closed and open-ended questions. Willig (2001) Most widely used method of data collection in qualitative research. Strengths: Can elaborate on sensitive issues. Less biased by the researcher’s preconceptions. Flexibility of open-ended approaches as well as advantages of a structural approach. Compatible with many methods of data analysis. Allows themes to explore, but does not allow pursuing themes that are not prepared in advance. Limitations: The focus on individual processes: One-on-one situation is somewhat artificial which questions ecological validity. Data analysis is time consuming.

3. Interviews Focus Groups Basic idea of gathering 6 to 10 people and having them interact in a controlled social setting with a mediator who controls the flow and asks the questions. Group processes can help people to explore and clarify their views in ways that would be difficult to achieve in on-to-one interviews. Open-ended questions encourage personal importance on topics. Strengths: Quick and convenient way to collect data from several individuals. Natural setting which can provide higher ecological validity. Useful for exploring people’s knowledge and experiences (who, what, and why they think the way they do.) Limitations: Not appropriate for all research (ex: sensitive matters) Group dynamics such as conformity can result from groups. A problem when participants are not free (ex: jail, nursing homes) which raises ethical issues.

4. Interviews Narrative interviews The concept of the participant expressing information in story form. Murray (2003) assumption in psych that human beings are storytellers and the researcher’s task is to explore the different stories told. Parker (2005) a narrative is the way the self constructs a story of identity in relation to other people and their sociocultural context. Bruner (2006) the principal way people’s minds (or realities) are shaped to the patterns of daily life through the stories they tell. The purpose is to see how people impose a kind of order on their experiences so as to make sense of events in their lives. Strengths: A great way of exploring the complexity of individual experiences and interpretation, and provides an in-depth understanding of how meaning is constructed in people’s lives. Can be used with all people because of everyday language and ability to talk freely. Limitations: Results in an enormous amount of data and it can be time-consuming to translate and analyze.

5. Interviews Considerations before, during, and after an interview. Training of the interviewer Interviewer effects: effects caused by the presence of a particular interviewer. (Ex: unconscious non- verbal signs) Choice of interviewer People respond differently to males and females, people of different ages, and even ethnicity. Interview guide: a script for the interview based on previous research or literature. Be careful of ethical issues and leave questions open ended. Data recording: taking notes during the interview, but trying not to have it interfere with the interview. Can be recorded via videotape or audiotape. A transcript should be offered to the participant if possible. Transcription of the data: how to change the interview into a written text to be used for analysis decided in advance. Qualitative methods require to be transferred verbatim. Postmodern transcripts: pauses, interruptions, false starts, laughter, volume of speech, intonation. Briefing: informing the participant about the research and having them sign a consent. Includes the goal of the study, methods used, and any inconvenience that may occur.

6. Interviews Possible interview questions: Descriptive questions: Invite participant to give a general account of something (“what happened?” or “what does it feel like to be a mother?”) Structural questions: Invites the participant to identify structures and meanings to use to make sense of the world (What does it mean to your life to suffer from AIDS?) Contrast questions: Allow participants to compare events and experiences (“Did you prefer being in that school or the other one?”) Evaluative questions: Ask about the respondent’s feelings about someone or something (“Did you feel afraid when you had the HIV test?”) Not a good example from the book…why?

7. Interviews Considerations continued: Rapport: a trusting and open relationship. The respondent should never have to reveal more than he or she is comfortable with. How is this established? Active listening technique: restate the participant’s comments and integrate them in later questions to show listening. During an interview, most people like to be cooperative, which can skew results or validity. The participants should be debriefed after the interview. If the participant reads the transcript they can decide to withdrawal information they are not comfortable with.

8. Interviews Use of inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) Data analysis: interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) Goal: gain insight into how an individual perceives and explains a phenomenon. Thematic analysis includes the Identification of key themes, concepts, and categories. Coding: finding specific categories in the data material. Willig (2001) grounded theory (used in sociology) enables the researcher to study social processes but IPA allows the researcher to gain an insider’s view of how individuals make sense of the world. Stages of analysis: The first stage of analysis, descriptive labels are given to discrete instances of phenomena. This leads to low-level categories which continue into high-level categories and eventually, meaningful units. Analysis is based on interpretation of the participants experience derived from looking at the presented phenomenon rather than an imported one. Analysis involves a systematic search for themes during the first reading of the transcripts. Later readings will try to connect the themes in meaningful ways to establish superordinate (higher-order) themes and subthemes. Conclusions are derived from elicited themes that are supported by verbatim extracts (quotations) that have good descriptions.

9. Interviews Willig (2001) stages as analytic strategy in IPA. 1. Reading and rereading of the transcripts: Researchers become very familiar with the participant’s account and look for useful analysis (key phrases, connections, etc.) 2. Identification of emergent themes: Themes spring out of the text and capture something essential. The researcher may not use psychological terminology at this point. First reading themes could be called “raw data themes.” 3. Structuring emergent themes: The researcher lists all emergent themes and sees if they relate in clusters or hierarchies. Clusters are given labels that capture the essence. In vivo terms: brief quotations or descriptive labels. Ex: childhood cluster which includes relationships with friend, and relationships with family. 4. Summary table of the structures themes and relevant quotations that illustrate each theme. The table includes only the themes that capture the essentials of the participant’s experience in relation to the research question. Exclude other themes. Very specific summary tables that includes cluster labels, subordinate theme labels, brief quotations, and references with page and line numbers. Data saturation: the point where qualitative researchers reach a point where they can find no new information.

10. Interviews Example of IPA Grigoriu (2004) Qualitative research on gay men and heterosexual women