1. www.helsinki.fi/yliopisto Dark energy: the greatest mystery of the universe Syksy Räsänen Department of Physics and Helsinki Institute of Physics Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.20111

2. “for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae” 2 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Physics Nobel prize 2011 Saul Perlmutter Brian P. SchmidtAdam G. Riess

3. Observation: Distances are longer than expected. Interpretation: Expansion of the universe has accelerated. Cause: Dark energy. 3 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 From brightness to darkness

4. 4 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Type Ia supernova

5. 5 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011

6. Supernovae are dimmer. Exclude scattering from dust, evolution, and so on ⇒ supernovae are further away How to relate distance to expansion rate? The result is unexpected, so should be careful with assumptions. 6 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 From astrophysics to cosmology

7. www.helsinki.fi/yliopistoArkadia bookshop, 31.10.20117

8. www.helsinki.fi/yliopistoArkadia bookshop, 31.10.20118 WMAP 2003 http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/

9. www.helsinki.fi/yliopistoArkadia bookshop, 31.10.20119 Planck 2010 http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=47333

10. www.helsinki.fi/yliopistoArkadia bookshop, 31.10.201110

11. 1.General relativity is valid. 1.The universe is a four-dimensional curved spacetime. 2.The relation between curvature and matter is determined by the Einstein equation. 2.Space is exactly homogeneous and isotropic. 11Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Assumptions

12. Assumptions 1.1 (spacetime) and 2 (symmetry) lead to a relation between distance and expansion rate. It follows that the longer distances imply faster (in fact accelerated) expansion. Adding assumption 1.2 (dynamics) leads to the conclusion that there is matter with negative pressure. 12 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 The Friedmann-Lemaître- Robertson-Walker model

13. Dark energy is a form of matter which has negative pressure, does not absorb or emit light and which is evenly spread in the universe. Not to be confused with dark matter, which has positive pressure and is clumped. 13 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Dark energy

14. Best candidate for dark energy: vacuum energy/cosmological constant. In quantum field theory, there is energy associated with empty space. This fits the observations well. (Some issues with galaxy distribution remain.) Main problems with vacuum energy are theoretical. 14 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Vacuum energy

15. 1.Why is the vacuum energy density so small? 2.Why is the vacuum energy density so close to the matter energy density today? (“the coincidence problem”) 15 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Problems with vacuum energy

16. Naive theoretical estimate of vacuum energy density: Value which fits the observations: A mismatch of 10 -120. “The worst prediction in all of theoretical physics.” 16 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 The smallness problem

17. Vacuum energy density stays constant. In contrast, as the universe expands, the energy density of matter drops inversely to the volume. Today,. Why are we living in a special era? Why 10 billion years? 17 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 The coincidence problem

18. Vacuum energy is the simplest model of dark energy. Dozens of different alternatives have been studied. Could be a field permeating all of space, quintessence. A common problem: why 10 billion years? 18 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Models of dark energy

19. Recall: if we assume general relativity + homogeneity & isotropy, dark energy is needed. What if general relativity needs to be modified? What if the approximation of neglecting structures is not valid? 19 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Three alternatives

20. We can either drop the Einstein equation or the four-dimensional spacetime, or both. However, general relativity has been well tested. The simplest modification, the cosmological constant, is equivalent to vacuum energy. Also: why 10 billion years? 20 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Modified gravity

21. We can drop the approximation of perfect homogeneity and isotropy. This changes both the relationship between distance and expansion rate, as well as the expansion rate. Expansion can accelerate without negative pressure. Distances can be longer without acceleration. Structure formation has a time scale of 10 billion years. No realistic models yet. 21 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Effect of structures

22. Distance observations show that something strange is going on. Vacuum energy fits the observations, but makes people uneasy. Dark energy, modified gravity, the effect of structures? Nobel committee: “dark energy [...] is an enigma, perhaps the greatest in physics today” 22 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 Questions remain

23. Tieteiden talo ti 8.11. kello 18: ”Kuun alta kaarevaan avaruuteen” 23 Arkadia bookshop, 31.10.2011 On the history and future of gravity