1. 1 Research Design The Basics of Social Research Babbie

2. 2 Chapter Outline  Three Purposes of Research  The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation  Necessary and Sufficient Causes  Units of Analysis  The Time Dimension  How to Design a Research Project  The Research Proposal

3. 3 Introduction According to Babbie what is scientific inquiry?  Observation  Interpretation “The process by which scientists ask questions, develop and carry out investigations, make predictions, gather evidence, and propose explanations.”

4. 4 Three Purposes of Research 1. Exploration 2. Description 3. Explanation

5. 5 Purpose of Exploratory Studies  Satisfy researcher’s curiosity and desire for better understanding.  Test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study.  Develop methods to be employed in a subsequent study. What is the main drawback of an exploratory study?

6. 6 Purpose of Exploratory Studies Exploratory studies do not provide satisfactory answers to research questions because the participants in the study may not be representative of the larger population you are trying to generalize about.

7. 7 Criteria for Nomothetic Causality 1. Correlation. A statistical correlation between the two variables. 2. Time order. The cause takes place before the effect. 3. Nonspurious. There is no third variable that can explain away the observed correlation as spurious. What is an example that does not meet each criteria?

8. 8 Criteria for Nomothetic Causality Examples of unmet criteria:  Correlation: If equal percentages of liberals and conservatives supported an issue, political views could not be identified as a cause for supporting the issue.  Time order: A child’s religion is not generally the cause of the parents’ religion.  Spurious: Ice cream sales do not cause death by drowning.

9. 9 False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality  Research can determine some causes, but it cannot determine complete causation.  Exceptions do not disprove a causal relationship.  Causal relationships can be true even if they don’t apply in a majority of cases. What are necessary causes? What are sufficient causes?

10. 10 Necessary and Sufficient Causes  Necessary cause - a condition that must be present for the effect to follow.  Sufficient cause - condition that if present, guarantees the effect in question.

11. 11 Necessary Cause Sufficient Cause Necessary and Sufficient Causes PREGNANT FAILED A C B C B A B A A F F F F F Male Female Took Exam Did Not Take

12. 12 Units of Analysis What are they? Those things we examine in order to create summary descriptions of all such units and to explain differences among them. What are some examples?

13. 13 Units of Analysis What or whom to study:  Individuals  Groups  Organizations  Social artifacts What is a social artifact? What are some examples?

14. 14 Social Artifact Any product of social beings or their behavior  A social artifact implies a set of all objects of the same kind: all children’s books, all biographies, all press conferences.  Social interactions such as weddings, friendship choices, court cases, traffic accidents, etc., are also social artifacts. What is the ecological fallacy?

15. 15 Units of Analysis and Faulty Reasoning  Ecological fallacy – assuming something learned about an ecological unit says something about the individuals in that unit.  For example?

16. 16 Units of Analysis and Faulty Reasoning  Reductionism – Reducing something to a simple explanation when in reality it is complex. What are cross-sectional studies?

17. 17 The Time Dimension  Cross-sectional Studies Observations of a sample, or cross-section of a population or phenomena that are made at one point in time. ( Brunei Population Census) What are longitudinal studies?

18. 18 The Time Dimension  Longitudinal Studies Permits observations of the same phenomenon over an extended period. For example?  Field-research projects What are trend studies?

19. 19 Longitudinal Studies  Trend Studies A type of longitudinal study that examines change within a population over time For example?  Comparison of population census over a period of decades What are cohort studies? What are panel studies?

20. 20 Longitudinal Studies  Cohort Studies Examines specific subpopulations, or cohorts, as they change over time.  Panel Study Examines the same set of people each time. (interview same sample of voters every month during an election campaign).

21. 21 21 Basic Research Outline  The Social Problem Present a clear, brief statement of the problem, with concepts defined where necessary Present a clear, brief statement of the problem, with concepts defined where necessary Show that the problem is limited to bounds amenable to treatment or test Show that the problem is limited to bounds amenable to treatment or test Describe the significance of the problem with reference to specific criteria Describe the significance of the problem with reference to specific criteria

22. 22 22 Basic Research Outline  The Theoretical Framework Describe the relationship of the problem to a theoretical framework Describe the relationship of the problem to a theoretical framework Demonstrate the relationship of the problem to previous research Demonstrate the relationship of the problem to previous research Present alternate hypotheses considered feasible within the framework of the theory. Present alternate hypotheses considered feasible within the framework of the theory.

23. 23 23 Basic Research Outline, p.3  The Research Question/Hypotheses Clearly state the research questions or the hypotheses selected for test. (Null and alternate) Clearly state the research questions or the hypotheses selected for test. (Null and alternate) Indicate the significance of test hypotheses to the advancement of research and theory. Indicate the significance of test hypotheses to the advancement of research and theory. Define concepts or variables (preferably in operational terms). Define concepts or variables (preferably in operational terms). Describe possible mistakes and their consequences. Describe possible mistakes and their consequences. Note seriousness of possible mistakes. Note seriousness of possible mistakes.

24. 24 24 Basic Research Outline, p.4 Design of the Experiment or Inquiry Design of the Experiment or Inquiry Describeselected operational design and specify statistical tests including dummy variables Describeselected operational design and specify statistical tests including dummy variables Sampling Procedures

25. 25 25 Basic Research Outline, p.6  Methods of Gathering Data Describe measures of quantitative variables. Describe means of identifying qualitative variables Describe measures of quantitative variables. Describe means of identifying qualitative variables Include descriptions of questionnaires or schedules Include descriptions of questionnaires or schedules Describe interview procedure Describe interview procedure Describe use made of pilot study, pretest, trial run. Describe use made of pilot study, pretest, trial run.

26. 26 26 Basic Research Outline, p.7  Working Guide Prepare working guide with time and budget estimates Prepare working guide with time and budget estimates Estimate total person-hours and cost Estimate total person-hours and cost

27. 27 27 Basic Research Outline, p.8  Analysis of Results Specify methods of analysis Specify methods of analysis

28. 28 28 Basic Research Outline, p.9  Interpretation of Results Discuss how conclusions will be fed back into theory…OR… Discuss how conclusions will be fed back into theory…OR… Inform policy/practice. Inform policy/practice.

29. 29 How to Design a Research Project 1. Define the purpose of your project. 2. Specify exact meanings for the concepts you want to study. 3. Choose a research method. 4. Decide how to measure the results. 5. Decide whom or what to study. 6. Collect empirical data. 7. Process the data. 8. Analyze the data. 9. Report your findings.

30. 30 Elements of a Research Proposal 1. Problem or objective 2. Literature review 3. Participants for study 4. Measurement 5. Data-collection methods 6. Analysis 7. Schedule 8. Budget