1. Earthquakes
Section 1:Forces within Earth SWBAT define stress and strain as they apply to rocks.
SWBAT distinguish among the three types of faults.
SWBAT contrast the three types of seismic waves.

2. Forces Within the Earth
Earthquakes: Natural vibrations of the ground caused by movement along gigantic fractures in Earth’s crust, or sometimes by volcanic eruptions.

3. Forces within Earth Focus: the point where an earthquake originates.
Epicenter: the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
Movement along faults causes most earthquakes.

4. Forces Within Earth
When rocks fracture or break deep within Earth’s crust, earthquakes occur.
Stress: the forces per unit area acting on a material
Fractures form when stress exceeds the strength of the rock.
Three types of stress acts on Earth’s rocks:
Compression
Tension
Shear

5. Three Types of Stress
Compression: is stress that decreases the volume of a material.
Tension: stress that pulls a material apart.
Shear: Stress that causes a material to twist.

6. Stress-Strain Curve
Strain: The deformation of materials in response to stress.
Stress-Strain Curve: A graph that shows when stress applied to rocks is plotted against strain.
Two Segments:
Straight Segment – produced by low stresses
(elastic strain)
Curved Segment – produced by high stresses (ductile deformation)

7. Stress-Strain Curve

8. Stress-Strain Curve
Elastic Strain: causes a material to bend and stretch; material can return to its original size and shape.
Ductile Deformation: when stress exceeds a certain value; this type of strain causes permanent deformation.

9. Three Types of Faults
Three types of faults

11. Three Types of Faults
Many kinds of rock fail when stress is applied too quickly.
The resulting fracture or system of fractures, along which movement occurs is a fault.

12. Three Types of Faults
Reverse Faults: fractures that form as a result of horizontal compression. Compressional force results in horizontal shortening of the crust.

13. Three Types of Faults
Normal Fault: fractures caused by horizontal tension. The movement is partially horizontal and partially vertical. This results in extension of the crust.

14. Three Types of Faults
Strike-Slip Fault: fractures caused by horizontal shear. Movement is mainly horizontal; motion along this fault has offset features that were originally continuous along the fault.

16. Seismic Waves
Seismic Waves: vibrations of the ground during an earthquake.
Every earthquake generates 3 types of seismic waves:
Primary waves (P-waves)
Secondary waves (S-waves)
Surface Waves (Love and Rayleigh waves)

17. Seismic Waves
P-waves (primary): “push-pull” waves that travel through solids and liquids. P-waves squeeze and pull rocks in the same direction as the wave travels. P-waves travel faster than S-waves or surface waves.

18. Seismic Waves
S-waves (secondary): “shake” waves travel slower than P-waves and travel only through solids; causes rock particles to move at right angles in relation to the direction of the waves.

19. Seismic Waves
Surface waves: (Love and Rayleigh waves) move in two directions as they pass through rock. An up-and-down movement like and ocean wave occurs, as well as a side-to-side movement.

20. Love and Rayleigh Waves are the two types of surface waves.
Seismic Waves
Love and Rayleigh Waves are the two types of surface waves.

21. Seismic Waves

22. Section 2: Seismic Waves and Earth’s Interior
Earthquakes
Section 2: Seismic Waves and Earth’s Interior
SWBAT describe how a seismograph works.
SWBAT explain how seismic waves have been used to determine the structure and composition of Earth’s interior.

23. Seismic Waves and Earth’s Interior
Seismometer (also called a seismograph): instrument used to detect and record seismic waves. A frame is anchored to the ground with a mass and pen suspended from a spring or wire. When the ground shakes, the frames shakes causing the pen to record the seismic waves on paper surrounding a rotating drum.
Seismogram: record produced by a seismometer.

24. Seismic Waves & Earth’s Interior

25. Seismic Waves & Earth’s Interior Travel-Time Curves
For ANY distance from the epicenter, P-waves always arrive first at a seismic facility.
With increasing travel distance, the time separation between P-waves and S-waves increases.

26. Seismic Waves & Earth’s Interior
Most of what is known about Earth’s interior comes from the study of seismic waves.
Seismic waves change speed and direction when they encounter different materials.
P-waves and S-waves follow fairly direct paths when traveling through the mantle.
When P-waves strike the core, they refract or bend, creating a P-wave shadow zone between 11,000km and 16,000 km from the epicenter.

27. Seismic Waves & Earth’s Interior

28. Section 3: Measuring & Locating Earthquakes
SWBAT Compare and Contrast earthquake magnitude and intensity and the scales used to measure each.
SWBAT explain why data from at least three seismic stations are needed to locate an earthquake’s epicenter.
SWBAT describe Earth’s seismic belts.

29. Earthquake Magnitude & Intensity
Magnitude: the amount of energy released during an earthquake. Measured using the Richter Scale and Moment Magnitude Scale.
Richter Scale: based on the size of the largest seismic waves generated by the earthquake.
Moment Magnitude Scale: (most seismologists today use this scale) values are estimated from the size of several types of seismic waves. Size of fault rupture, amount of movement along the fault, and the rock’s stiffness are also taken into account.

30. Magnitude Scales

31. Magnitude Scales Moment Magnitude Scale

32. Measuring Intensity
Intensity: the measure of the amount of damage done to the structures involved. Intensity depends primarily on the amplitude of the surface waves generated.
Intensity decreases as the distance from the epicenter increases.
Intensity values from the Modified Mercalli Scale can be compiled to make a seismic-intensity map.

33. Measuring Intensity
Modified Mercalli Scale: used to measure intensity; scale uses roman numerals from I to XII. Specific effects or damage corresponds to specific numerals; the higher the numeral, the worse the damage.

34. Magnitude Vs. Intensity
Both magnitude and intensity reflect the size of seismic waves generated by the earthquake.
Intensity is also determined by the depth of the earthquake’s focus.
Shallow-focus earthquakes often cause more damage than deep-focus earthquakes.
Deep-focus earthquakes produces smaller vibrations at the epicenter than a shallow-focus earthquake.

35. Distance to an Earthquake
The distance to an earthquake’s epicenter (epicentral distance) can be determined by plotting three seismic stations on a map. A circle whose radius is equal to the corresponding epicentral distance is plotted around each station. The point of intersection of these circles is the earthquake’s epicenter.

36. Distance to an Earthquake
The epicentral distance can also be calculated using the P-S separation on a seismogram and the distance on a travel-time graph at which the P-curve and S-curve have the same separation.

37. Distance to an Earthquake

38. Locating Epicenters

39. Distance to an Earthquake

40. Recording Seismic Waves

41. Seismic Belts
The majority of the world’s earthquakes occur in relatively narrow seismic belts that separate large regions with little or no seismic activity.

42. Section 4: Earthquakes and Society
SWBAT discuss factors that affect the amount of damage done by an earthquake.
SWBAT explain some of the factors considered in earthquake possibility studies.
SWBAT discuss some of the hazards associated with earthquakes.
SWBAT define seismic gaps.

43. Earthquake Hazards
The damage produced by an earthquake is directly related to the strength or quality of the structures involved.
Severe Damage Occurs to Unreinforced Buildings:
Concrete
Stone
Brick
More resistant to structural failure:
Wood
high-rise steel-frame buildings

44. Structural Failure
Pancaking: when the supporting walls of the ground floor fail causing the upper floors to fall and collapse as they hit the lower floors or ground floor.
Another type of structural failure is related to the height of the building. When shaking caused by the quake has the same vibrations of the natural sway of the building, it collapses.

45. Structural Failure Pancaking

46. Land and Soil Failure
Areas with fluid-saturated sand, seismic vibrations cause subsurface materials to liquefy and behave like quicksand. This can generate landslides even in areas with low relief.
Soil liquefaction can cause trees and houses to fall over or they may sink into the ground. Underground pipes and tanks may rise to the surface.

47. Soil Liquefaction

48. Fault Scarps
Fault Scarps: areas of great vertical offset produced by fault movements associated with earthquakes.

49. Tsunami
Tsunami: an ocean wave generated by vertical motions of the seafloor during an earthquake.

50. Seismic Risk Maps

51. Earthquake Prediction
Earthquake prediction is based on probability studies.
Probability Studies are based on two factors:
The history of earthquakes in an area
The rate at which strain builds up in the rocks
Probability studies also take into considerations seismic gaps.
Seismic Gaps are sections of active faults that haven’t experienced significant earthquakes for a long period of time.

52. Earthquake Case Studies
Add notes to each major earthquake as I tell you more about it or of I show a video clip

53. Earthquakes and Society Nepal Earthquake: April 2015

55. Japan March 2011

56. Japan March 2011

57. Japan March 2011

58. Earthquakes and Society Indonesia Earthquake 2004

59. Earthquakes and Society Sir Lanka Tsunami after Indonesia Earthquake 2004

60. Earthquakes and Society :
Sir Lanka Tsunami after Earthquake

61. Earthquakes and Society Sir Lanka Tsunami after Earthquake:
(part 1)
(part 2)
(part 3)
(part 4)
(part 5)
(part 6)
(part 7)
(part 8)

62. Earthquakes and Society Haiti Earthquake: January 2010 Pictures is of Port au Prince

63. Earthquakes and Society 1994 Northridge, Ca

64. Earthquakes and Society 1989 San Francisco Earthquake

65. Earthquakes and Society San Francisco Earthquake: 1906 Pictured below is City Hall

66. Earthquakes and Society San Francisco Earthquake: 1906

67. Ha Ha Ha