1. 2.2 Software Myths 2.2 Software Myths Myth 1. The cost of computers is lower than that of analog or electromechanical devices. –Hardware is cheap compared to other electromechanical devices –However cost of software, with reliability and maintenance, is enormous e.g. Space-Shuttle software has 400,000 words (relatively small) but costs NASA approximately $100,000,000 a year to maintain. –Software Costs can become exorbitant over time.

2. Myth 2. Software is easy to change. –Yes changes are easy to make -- but hard to make without introducing errors. –Every change must be verified and rectified –Becomes more “brittle” with changes –We become hesitant to change software over time -- recognizing

3. Myth 3 Cont. Myth 3 Cont. –Little available data on software reliability vs. non-computer systems –British Royal Signals and Radar Establishment analyzed software for highly safety critical purposes. –10% of modules or functions deviated from original design. –Deviations found even in tested software. –1 in 200 new modules had errors with observable effects on performance. –Integer overflow errors. –Complete error elimination is a hard and lofty goal to achieve.

4. Myth 3 Cont. Myth 3 Cont. –These are not just “teething problems” but chronic ones over tens or hundreds of hours of use –e.g. (1) Therac-25 worked correctly thousands of times before first know overdose occurred. – (2) Space Shuttle -- NASA invested enormous effort and resources since 1980 »yet 16 severity-level 1 software errors have been discovered (errors that would result in loss of shuttle or crew »8 errors remained in code used in flights, though not encountered

5. Myth 3/ Cont. 12 errors with lower severity triggered during flight; 3 threatened mission, 9 had to be worked around ALL DESPITE THE SOPHISTICATION OF NASA’s software development and verification program.

6. Myth 3/ Cont. Redundancy is not a solution as in the case of hardware wearout. “Zero-Defect” software is false claim. Usually not enough time to perfect software; costs also severe. Computers may be more reliable == but not necessarily safer.

7. Myth 4: Increasing software reliability will increase safety –Software errors may not be related to safety at all –Compliance with requirements specification may not remove errors –Safety-critical software errors can often be traced to Requirements –That is, software is doing exactly what it is supposed to do. –Software may be correct and 100% reliable -- yet responsible for serious accidents. –RELIABILITY DOES NOT EQUAL SAFETY

8. Myth 5 Testing software or “proving” (using formal verification techniques) software correct can remove all the errors. –Software limitations well known –Exhaustive testing is impossible –Only a relatively small part of the state space can be covered –Despite improved testing techniques, no breakthroughs –Mathematical proofs advanced - - but even arguments for impossibility of complete proof of correctness –Mathematical verification of software may be possible in the future.

9. Myth 5: /cont. Correct behavior of software must be specified in a formal mathematical language. May be as difficult and error-prone as the code. Software errors often involve overload -- outside the realm of specification Intricate software interactions complicate the issue. In summary, most safety-related software errors can be traced to the requirements

10. Myth 6: Reusing Software increases safety –Reuse of proven software may increase reliability, but has little or no effect on safety –May even decrease safety because of the complacency it engenders –Specific hazards of new implementation may not have been considered –Examples include:

11. Therac-20 parts reused for Therac-25 with same error, but causing two deaths »Error did not have serious consequences in Therac-20. »Resulted in occasional blown fuse -- not massive overdose »Never detected or fixed in Therac-20

12. Air Traffic Control Software »Successful in US for many years but not in Great Britain »Was not developed for zero degrees longitude along the Greenwich Meridian »Manchester plopped on top of Warwick

13. Aviation Software written for Northern Hemisphere has problems in Southern Hemisphere Software written for US F-16s caused problems when reused in aircraft flown over the Dead Sea where altitude is below sea level.Software written for US F-16s caused problems when reused in aircraft flown over the Dead Sea where altitude is below sea level. Safety is not a property of software alone, but of the software design, and environment where software is used.Safety is not a property of software alone, but of the software design, and environment where software is used. Application, environment, and system-specific.Application, environment, and system-specific.

14. Myth 7: Computers reduce risk over mechanical systems b Argument 1-- can check parameters through finer control more often b Counter -- Finer control allows operation under smaller safety margins b No way to test adequately

15. Myth 7: /cont. Argument 2-- automated system allow operators to work farther away from hazardous areas. More accidents due to operators’ entry into 7 - 7 environment. Humans enter unsafe hazardous environments Became unsafe to enforce robot shutdown protocols

16. Myth 7/cont. Argument 3 -- eliminating operators eliminates human errors Argument 4 -- Computers have the potential to provide better information to operators and thus improve decision making Argument 5 -- Software does not fail.