1. Chap 20-1 Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 20 Sampling: Additional Topics in Sampling Statistics for Business and Economics 6 th Edition

2. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-2 Chapter Goals After completing this chapter, you should be able to:  Explain the basic steps of a sampling study  Describe sampling and nonsampling errors  Explain simple random sampling and stratified sampling  Analyze results from simple random or stratified samples  Determine sample size when estimating population mean, population total, or population proportion  Describe other sampling methods  Cluster Sampling, Two-Phase Sampling, Nonprobability Samples

3. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-3 Steps of a Sampling Study Step 1: Information Required? Step 2: Relevant Population? Step 3: Sample Selection? Step 4: Obtaining Information? Step 5: Inferences From Step 6: Conclusions?

4. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-4 Sampling and Nonsampling Errors  A sample statistic is an estimate of an unknown population parameter  Sample evidence from a population is variable  Sample-to-sample variation is expected  Sampling error results from the fact that we only see a subset of the population when a sample is selected  Statistical statements can be made about sampling error  It can be measured and interpreted using confidence intervals, probabilities, etc.

5. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-5 Sampling and Nonsampling Errors  Nonsampling error results from sources not related to the sampling procedure used  Examples:  The population actually sampled is not the relevant one  Survey subjects may give inaccurate or dishonest answers  Nonresponse to survey questions (continued)

6. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-6  Probability Sample  Items in the sample are chosen on the basis of known probabilities  Nonprobability Sample  Items included are chosen without regard to their probability of occurrence Types of Samples

7. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-7 Types of Samples Quota Samples Non-Probability Samples Judgement Convenience (continued) Probability Samples Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster

8. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-8 Simple Random Samples  Suppose that a sample of n objects is to be selected from a population of N objects  A simple random sample procedure is one in which every possible sample of n objects is equally likely to be chosen  Only sampling without replacement is considered here  Random samples can be obtained from table of random numbers or computer random number generators

9. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-9  Decide on sample size: n  Divide frame of N individuals into groups of j individuals: j=N/n  Randomly select one individual from the 1 st group  Select every j th individual thereafter Systematic Sampling N = 64 n = 8 j = 8 First Group

10. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-10 Finite Population Correction Factor  Suppose sampling is without replacement and the sample size is large relative to the population size  Assume the population size is large enough to apply the central limit theorem  Apply the finite population correction factor when estimating the population variance

11. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-11 Estimating the Population Mean  Let a simple random sample of size n be taken from a population of N members with mean μ  The sample mean is an unbiased estimator of the population mean μ  The point estimate is:

12. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-12 Estimating the Population Mean  An unbiased estimation procedure for the variance of the sample mean yields the point estimate  Provided the sample size is large, 100(1 -  )% confidence intervals for the population mean are given by (continued)

13. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-13 Estimating the Population Total  Consider a simple random sample of size n from a population of size N  The quantity to be estimated is the population total Nμ  An unbiased estimation procedure for the population total Nμ yields the point estimate NX

14. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-14 Estimating the Population Total  An unbiased estimator of the variance of the population total is  Provided the sample size is large, a 100(1 -  )% confidence interval for the population total is

15. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-15 Confidence Interval for Population Total: Example A firm has a population of 1000 accounts and wishes to estimate the total population value A sample of 80 accounts is selected with average balance of $87.6 and standard deviation of $22.3 Find the 95% confidence interval estimate of the total balance

16. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-16 Example Solution The 95% confidence interval for the population total balance is $82,912.52 to $92,287.16

17. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-17 Estimating the Population Proportion  Let the true population proportion be P  Let be the sample proportion from n observations from a simple random sample  The sample proportion,, is an unbiased estimator of the population proportion, P

18. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-18 Estimating the Population Proportion  An unbiased estimator for the variance of the population proportion is  Provided the sample size is large, a 100(1 -  )% confidence interval for the population proportion is (continued)

19. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-19 Stratified Sampling Overview of stratified sampling:  Divide population into two or more subgroups (called strata) according to some common characteristic  A simple random sample is selected from each subgroup  Samples from subgroups are combined into one Population Divided into 4 strata Sample

20. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-20 Stratified Random Sampling  Suppose that a population of N individuals can be subdivided into K mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups, or strata  Stratified random sampling is the selection of independent simple random samples from each stratum of the population.  Let the K strata in the population contain N 1, N 2,..., N K members, so that N 1 + N 2 +... + N K = N  Let the numbers in the samples be n 1, n 2,..., n K. Then the total number of sample members is n 1 + n 2 +... + n K = n

21. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-21 Estimation of the Population Mean, Stratified Random Sample  Let random samples of n j individuals be taken from strata containing N j individuals (j = 1, 2,..., K)  Let  Denote the sample means and variances in the strata by X j and s j 2 and the overall population mean by μ  An unbiased estimator of the overall population mean μ is:

22. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-22 Estimation of the Population Mean, Stratified Random Sample  An unbiased estimator for the variance of the overall population mean is where  Provided the sample size is large, a 100(1 -  )% confidence interval for the population mean for stratified random samples is (continued)

23. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-23 Estimation of the Population Total, Stratified Random Sample  Suppose that random samples of n j individuals from strata containing N j individuals (j = 1, 2,..., K) are selected and that the quantity to be estimated is the population total, Nμ  An unbiased estimation procedure for the population total Nμ yields the point estimate

24. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-24 Estimation of the Population Total, Stratified Random Sample  An unbiased estimation procedure for the variance of the estimator of the population total yields the point estimate  Provided the sample size is large, 100(1 -  )% confidence intervals for the population total for stratified random samples are obtained from (continued)

25. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-25 Estimation of the Population Proportion, Stratified Random Sample  Suppose that random samples of n j individuals from strata containing N j individuals (j = 1, 2,..., K) are obtained  Let P j be the population proportion, and the sample proportion, in the j th stratum  If P is the overall population proportion, an unbiased estimation procedure for P yields

26. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-26 An unbiased estimation procedure for the variance of the estimator of the overall population proportion is where is the estimate of the variance of the sample proportion in the j th stratum (continued) Estimation of the Population Proportion, Stratified Random Sample

27. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-27  Provided the sample size is large, 100(1 -  )% confidence intervals for the population proportion for stratified random samples are obtained from (continued) Estimation of the Population Proportion, Stratified Random Sample

28. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-28 Proportional Allocation: Sample Size  One way to allocate sampling effort is to make the proportion of sample members in any stratum the same as the proportion of population members in the stratum  If so, for the j th stratum,  The sample size for the j th stratum using proportional allocation is

29. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-29 Optimal Allocation To estimate an overall population mean or total and if the population variances in the individual strata are denoted σ j 2, the most precise estimators are obtained with optimal allocation  The sample size for the j th stratum using optimal allocation is

30. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-30 Optimal Allocation To estimate the overall population proportion, estimators with the smallest possible variance are obtained by optimal allocation  The sample size for the j th stratum for population proportion using optimal allocation is (continued)

31. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-31 Determining Sample Size  The sample size is directly related to the size of the variance of the population estimator  If the researcher sets the allowable size of the variance in advance, the necessary sample size can be determined

32. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-32 Sample Size, Mean, Simple Random Sampling  Consider estimating the mean of a population of N members, which has variance σ 2  If the desired variance, of the sample mean is specified, the required sample size to estimate the population mean through simple random sampling is

33. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-33 Sample Size, Mean, Simple Random Sampling  Often it is more convenient to specify directly the desired width of the confidence interval for the population mean rather than  Thus the researcher specifies the desired margin of error for the mean  Calculations are simple since, for example, a 95% confidence interval for the population mean will extend an approximate amount 1.96 on each side of the sample mean, X (continued)

34. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-34 Required Sample Size Example 2000 items are in a population. If σ = 45, what sample size is needed to estimate the mean within ± 5 with 95% confidence? (Always round up) So the required sample size is n = 270 N = 2000, 1.96 = 5 → = 2.551

35. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-35  Consider estimating the proportion P of individuals in a population of size N who possess a certain attribute  If the desired variance,, of the sample proportion is specified, the required sample size to estimate the population proportion through simple random sampling is Sample Size, Proportion, Simple Random Sampling (continued)

36. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-36  The largest possible value for this expression occurs when the value of P is 0.25  A 95% confidence interval for the population proportion will extend an approximate amount 1.96 on each side of the sample proportion Sample Size, Proportion, Simple Random Sampling (continued)

37. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-37 Required Sample Size Example How large a sample would be necessary to estimate the true proportion of voters who will vote for proposition A, within ±3%, with 95% confidence, from a population of 3400 voters?

38. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-38 Required Sample Size Example Solution: N = 34000 For 95% confidence, use z = 1.96 1.96 =.03 → =.015306 So use n = 1036 (continued)

39. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-39 Sample Size, Mean, Stratified Sampling  Suppose that a population of N members is subdivided in K strata containing N 1, N 2,...,N K members  Let σ j 2 denote the population variance in the j th stratum  An estimate of the overall population mean is desired  If the desired variance,, of the sample estimator is specified, the required total sample size, n, can be found

40. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-40 Sample Size, Mean, Stratified Sampling  For proportional allocation:  For optimal allocation: (continued)

41. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-41 Cluster Sampling  Population is divided into several “clusters,” each representative of the population  A simple random sample of clusters is selected  Generally, all items in the selected clusters are examined  An alternative is to chose items from selected clusters using another probability sampling technique Population divided into 16 clusters. Randomly selected clusters for sample

42. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-42 Estimators for Cluster Sampling  A population is subdivided into M clusters and a simple random sample of m of these clusters is selected and information is obtained from every member of the sampled clusters  Let n 1, n 2,..., n m denote the numbers of members in the m sampled clusters  Denote the means of these clusters by  Denote the proportions of cluster members possessing an attribute of interest by P 1, P 2,..., P m

43. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-43 Estimators for Cluster Sampling  The objective is to estimate the overall population mean µ and proportion P  Unbiased estimation procedures give MeanProportion (continued)

44. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-44  Estimates of the variance of these estimators, following from unbiased estimation procedures, are MeanProportion Where is the average number of individuals in the sampled clusters Estimators for Cluster Sampling (continued)

45. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-45  Provided the sample size is large, 100(1 -  )% confidence intervals using cluster sampling are  for the population mean  for the population proportion Estimators for Cluster Sampling (continued)

46. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-46 Two-Phase Sampling  Sometimes sampling is done in two steps  An initial pilot sample can be done  Disadvantage:  takes more time  Advantages:  Can adjust survey questions if problems are noted  Additional questions may be identified  Initial estimates of response rate or population parameters can be obtained

47. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-47 Non-Probability Samples Quota Samples Non-Probability Samples Judgement Convenience Probability Samples Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster

48. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-48 Non-Probability Samples  It may be simpler or less costly to use a non- probability based sampling method  Judgement sample  Quota sample  Convience sample  These methods may still produce good estimates of population parameters  But …  Are more subject to bias  No valid way to determine reliability (continued)

49. Statistics for Business and Economics, 6e © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. Chap 20-49 Chapter Summary  Reviewed basic steps in a sampling study  Defined sampling and nonsampling errors  Examined probability sampling methods  Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Stratified Random Sampling, Cluster Sampling  Identified Estimators for the population mean, population total, and population proportion for different types of samples  Determined the required sample size for specified confidence interval width  Examined nonprobabilistic sampling methods