1. Chapter 17 Thermodynamics: Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy General Chemistry: An Integrated Approach Hill, Petrucci, 4 th Edition Mark P. Heitz State University of New York at Brockport © 2005, Prentice Hall, Inc.

2. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics2 Introductory Concepts Thermodynamics examines the relationship between heat (q) and work (w) Spontaneity is the notion of whether or not a process can take place unassisted Entropy is a measure of how energy is spread out among the particles of a system EOS

3. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics3 Introductory Concepts Free energy is a thermodynamic function that relates enthalpy and entropy to spontaneity EOS Free energy is connected with the ability to do work e.g., the chemical reaction in a battery generates electricity to light a flashlight bulb

4. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics4 Spontaneous Change A spontaneous process is one that can occur in a system left to itself; no action from outside the system is necessary to bring the change about Example: spontaneous combustion of damp hay or silo explosions from gases evolved from decomposing grain EOS If a process is spontaneous, the reverse process is nonspontaneous and vice versa

5. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics5 Spontaneity A general rule: that exothermic reactions are spontaneous and endothermic reactions are nonspontaneous works in many cases EOS However, enthalpy change is not a sufficient criterion for predicting spontaneous change

6. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics6 The Concept of Entropy EOS Consider mixing two gases: this occurs spontaneously, and the gases form a homogeneous mixture. The driving force is a thermodynamic quantity called entropy, a mathematical concept that is difficult to portray visually EOS There is essentially no enthalpy change involved, so why is the process spontaneous?

7. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics7 Entropy The total energy of a system remains unchanged in the mixing of the gases but the number of possibilities for the distribution of that energy increases This spreading of the energy and increase of entropy correspond to a greater physical disorder at the microscopic level EOS

8. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics8 Entropy There are two natural tendencies behind spontaneous processes: the tendency to achieve a lower energy state and the tendency toward a more disordered state EOS

9. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics9 Entropy (S) Entropy (S) is a state function: it is path independent  S final – S init =  S EOS  S = q rev /T The greater the number of configurations of the microscopic particles (atoms, ions, molecules) among the energy levels in a particular state of a system, the greater the entropy of the system

10. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics10 Reversible Process A process that is never more than an infinitesimal step away from equilibrium EOS The process can reverse directions by a miniscule change in a variable

11. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics11 Standard Molar Entropies The standard molar entropy, S o, is the entropy of one mole of a substance in its standard state.  S =  v p S o (products) –  v r S o (reactants) EOS According to the Third Law of Thermodynamics, the entropy of a pure, perfect crystal can be taken to be zero at 0 K

12. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics12 Standard Molar Entropies In general, the more atoms in its molecules, the greater is the entropy of a substance EOS Entropy is a function of temperature

13. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics13 The Second Law of Thermodynamics The Second Law of Thermodynamics establishes that all spontaneous or natural processes increase the entropy of the universe  S total =  S universe =  S system +  S surroundings EOS In a process, if entropy increases in both the system and the surroundings, the process is surely spontaneous

14. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics14 Free Energy Change The free energy change (  G) for a process at constant temperature and pressure is given by the Gibbs equation  G sys =  H sys – T  S sys EOS If  G < 0 (negative), a process is spontaneous. If  G > 0 (positive), a process is nonspontaneous. If  G = 0, the process is at equilibrium.

15. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics15 Criterion for Spontaneous Change EOS

16. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics16 Standard Free Energy Change The standard free energy change,  G o, of a reaction is the free energy change when reactants and products are in their standard states e.g., O 2 is a gas, Br 2 is liquid, etc....  G o =  H o – T  S o EOS Be mindful of units; H is usually in kJ and S is in J K –1

17. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics17 Standard Free Energy Change The standard free energy of formation,  G o f, is the free energy change that occurs in the formation of 1 mol of a substance in its standard state from the reference forms of its elements in their standard states EOS  G o =  v p  G o f (products) –  v r  G o f (reactants)

18. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics18 Free Energy Change and Equilibrium At equilibrium,  G = 0. Therefore, at the equilibrium temperature, the free energy change expression becomes  H = T  Sand  S =  H/T EOS Entropy and enthalpy of vaporization can be related to normal boiling point

19. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics19 Vaporization Energies Trouton’s rule implies that about the same amount of disorder is generated in the passage of one mole of substance from liquid to vapor when comparisons are made at the normal boiling point EOS  S° vapn =  H° vapn /T bp  87 J mol –1 K –1

20. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics20 Trouton’s Rule This rule works best with nonpolar substances and generally fails for liquids with a more ordered structure, such as those with extensive hydrogen bonding EOS

21. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics21 Raoult’s Law Revisited P solv = x solv · P o solv EOS Because the mole fraction of solvent in a solution (x solv ) is less than 1, the vapor pressure of the solvent (P solv ) in an ideal solution is lower than that of the pure solvent (P o solv )

22. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics22 Raoult’s Law Revisited A solution has a higher entropy than the pure solvent Because a solution has a higher entropy than the pure solvent, the vapor from the solution must also have a higher entropy than the vapor from the pure solvent EOS The entropy of the vapor increases if molecules can roam more freely, that is, they are at a lower pressure

23. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics23 Relationship of  G o and K eq  G = 0 is a criterion for equilibrium at a single temperature, the one temperature at which the equilibrium state has all reactants and products in their standard states  G and  G o are related through the reaction quotient, Q  G =  G o + RT ln Q Under the conditions of  G = 0 and Q = K eq, the equation above becomes EOS  G o =  RT ln K eq

24. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics24 The Equilibrium Constant, K eq Activities are the dimensionless quantities needed in the equilibrium constant expression K eq For pure solid and liquid phases: activity, a, = 1 For gases: Assume ideal gas behavior, and replace the activity by the numerical value of the gas partial pressure in atm. EOS For solutes in aqueous solution: Assume intermolecular or interionic attractions are negligible and replace solute activity by the numerical value of the solute molarity

25. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics25 The Significance of the Sign and Magnitude of  G o  G o is a large, negative quantity and equilibrium is very far to the right  G prod <<  G reac EOS

26. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics26 The Significance of the Sign and Magnitude of  G o  G o is a large, positive quantity and equilibrium is very far to the left  G prod >>  G reac EOS

27. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics27 The Significance of the Sign and Magnitude of  G o the equilibrium lies more toward the center of the reaction profile  G prod   G reac EOS

28. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics28 The Dependence of  G o and K eq on Temperature To obtain equilibrium constants at different temperatures, it will be assumed that  H and  S do not change much with temperature EOS the 25 o C values of  H o and  S o along with the desired temperature are substituted  G o =  H o – T  S o

29. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics29 The Dependence of  G o and K eq on Temperature To obtain K eq at the desired temperature, the following equation is used … EOS This is the van’t Hoff equation

30. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics30 Equilibrium with Vapor  H o for either sublimation or vaporization is used depending on the other component EOS This is the Clausius–Clapeyron equation Partial pressures are exchanged for K’s

31. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics31 Temperature Dependence of K eq EOS

32. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics32 Summary of Concepts A spontaneous change is one that occurs by itself without outside intervention The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a pure, perfect crystal at 0 K can be taken to be zero The direction of spontaneous change is that in which total entropy increases EOS The free energy change,  G, is equal to –T  S, and it applies just to the system itself

33. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics33 Summary (cont’d) The standard free energy change,  G o, can be calculated by substituting standard enthalpies and entropies of reaction and a Kelvin temperature into the Gibbs equation, or, by combining standard free energies of formation EOS The condition of equilibrium is one for which  G = 0

34. Chapter 17: Thermodynamics34 Summary (cont’d) The value of  G o is in itself often sufficient to determine how a reaction will proceed Values of  G o f,  H o f, and  S are generally tabulated for 25 o C. To obtain values of K eq at other temperatures, the van’t Hoff equation must be used EOS The Clausius–Clapeyron equation connects solid/vapor or liquid/vapor equilibria to varying temperature