1. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's1 Understand eight typical patterns of organization: chronological spatial general to specific more important to less important comparison and contrast classification and partition problem-methods-solution cause and effect

2. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's2 Follow four guidelines when revising headings: Avoid long noun strings. Be informative. Use a grammatical form appropriate to your audience. Avoid back-to-back headings.

3. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's3 There are two kinds of paragraphs: A body paragraph is a group of sentences (or sometimes a single sentence) that is complete and self-sufficient and that contributes to a larger discussion. A transitional paragraph helps readers move from one major point to another.

4. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's4 Most paragraphs contain two elements: The topic sentence states, summarizes, or forecasts the main point of the paragraph. The supporting information makes the topic sentence clear and convincing.

5. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's5 Avoid burying bad news in paragraphs: The most emphatic location in a paragraph is the topic sentence. The second most emphatic location is the end of the paragraph. The least emphatic location is the middle of the paragraph.

6. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's6 Supporting information usually fulfills one of five roles: It defines a key term or idea included in the topic sentence. It provides examples or illustrations of the situation described in the topic sentence. It identifies causes: factors that led to the situation. It defines effects: implications of the situation. It supports the claim made in the topic sentence.

7. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's7 Use three techniques to emphasize coherence: Add transitional words and phrases. Repeat key words. Use demonstrative pronouns followed by nouns.

8. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's8 Use transitional words and phrases:

9. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's9 Use these seven techniques for structuring effective sentences: Use lists. Emphasize new and important information. Choose an appropriate sentence length. Focus on the “real” subject. Focus on the “real” verb. Use parallel structure. Use modifiers effectively.

10. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's10 Use these five guidelines for creating effective lists: Set off each listed item with a number, a letter, or a symbol (usually a bullet). Break up long lists. Present the items in a parallel structure. Structure and punctuate the lead-in correctly. Punctuate the list correctly.

11. Use parallel structure: Use the same grammatical form for coordinate elements in a sentence. –all clauses either active or passive –all verbs either indicative or imperative –all nouns preceded by the same article Parallel structure creates a recognizable pattern and makes a sentence easier to follow. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's11

12. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's12 Use modifiers effectively: Distinguish between restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers. Avoid misplaced modifiers. Avoid dangling modifiers.

13. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's13 Choose the right words and phrases: Select an appropriate level of formality. Be clear and specific. Be concise. Use inoffensive language.

14. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's14 Select an appropriate level of formality: There are three levels of formality: informal moderately formal highly formal Use a level and tone appropriate for your audience subject purpose

15. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's15 Use these seven techniques for writing clearly and specifically: Use the active and passive voice appropriately. Be specific. Avoid unnecessary jargon. Use positive constructions. Avoid long noun strings. Avoid clichés. Avoid euphemisms.

16. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's16 Use the active and passive voice appropriately: Use the active voice unless the agent is clear from the context the agent is unknown the agent is less important than the action a reference to the agent is embarrassing, dangerous, or in some other way inappropriate

17. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's17 Use these three techniques for writing specifically: Use precise words. Provide adequate detail. Avoid ambiguity.

18. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's18 Avoid unnecessary jargon for four reasons: It can be imprecise. It can be confusing. It is often seen as condescending. It is often intimidating.

19. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's19 Be concise: Avoid unnecessary prepositional phrases. Avoid wordy phrases. Avoid fancy words.

20. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's20 Follow these five guidelines for avoiding sexist language: Replace the male-gender words with non-gender- specific words. Switch to a different form of the verb. Switch to the plural. Switch to he or she, he/she, s/he, or his or her. Address the reader directly.

21. Chapter 6. Writing for Your Readers © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin's21 Follow these five guidelines for using the people-first approach: Refer to the person first, the disability second. Don’t confuse handicap with disability. Don’t refer to victimization. Don’t refer to a person as “wheelchair bound” or “confined to a wheelchair.” Don’t refer to people with disabilities as abnormal.