1. Discussion: lecture course examination possible dates: Thursday, 14 December (last day of lecture) Another date in January (09 or 10 January)? Examination will last 1 hr 30 minutes (but you may not need all of that time). Format: primarily multiple choice, a few short-answer “essay” (two or three sentences) ** Must be concluded before 15 January 2007**

5. Front: a narrow zone of transition between air masses of contrasting density, that is, air masses of different temperatures or different water vapor concentrations or both. ** Named by the airmass that is advancing

6. When 2 different air masses come together, interesting things can happen Fronts are actually zones of transition, but sometimes the transition zone, called a frontal zone, can be quite sharp. The type of front depends on both the direction in which the air mass is moving and the characteristics of the air mass. There are four types of fronts that will be described: stationary front, cold front, warm front, and occluded front.

7. Indentifying a front on a surface weather map or by your own weather observations Look for: 1.Sharp temperature changes over a relatively short distance 2.Change in moisture content 3.Rapid shifts in wind direction 4.Pressure changes 5.Clouds and precipitation patterns

8. Stationary front: a nearly stationary narrow zone of transition between contrasting air masses;  winds blow parallel to the front but in opposite directions on the two sides of the front  in the mid-latitudes, typically separates cold dense cP air from milder mP air  often associated with a wide region of clouds and rain or snow on the cold side of the front.  clouds and precipitation result from overrunning, as warm humid air flows upward over the cooler air mass, more or less along the frontal surface, cools through adiabatic expansion which triggers condensation and precipitation.

9. Cold front: a narrow zone of transition between advancing relatively cold (dense) air and retreating relatively warm (less dense) air. over Europe, temperature contrast across a cold front is typically greater than that across stationary or warm front. cold frontal passage is associated with a sharp temperature drop in winter and a noticeable humidity drop in summer.

10. Some of the characteristics of cold fronts include the following: steep slope faster movement / propogation than other fronts most violent weather among types of fronts move farthest while maintaining intensity tend to be associated with cirrus well ahead of the front, strong thunderstorms along and ahead of the front, and a broad area of clouds immediately behind the front (although fast moving fronts may be mostly clear behind the front). can be associated with squall lines (a line of strong thunderstorms parallel to and ahead of the front). usually bring cooler weather, clearing skies, and a sharp change in wind direction.

11. The slope of a cold front is steeper (1:50 to 1:100) than the slope of a warm front (1:150)

12. Weather Feature Before frontal passage Region of frontAfter frontal passage Winds SE to SWgustyW to NW Temperature warmsudden decreasesteady cooling Dew point highsteadydecreases steadily Pressure falling steadilyminimum; rapid risesteady rise Visibility fair to poorpoor then improvinggood Clouds Ci, Cs, CbCbCu Precip showersheavy precipclearing General weather characteristics of a cold front

13. Warm front: a narrow zone of transition between advancing relatively warm (less dense) air and retreating relatively cold (dense) air.  warm front is associated with a broad cloud and precipitation shield that may extent hundred of kilometers ahead of the surface front

14. Some of the characteristics of warm fronts include the following: slope of a typical warm front is more gentle than cold fronts tend to move slowly. are typically less violent than cold fronts. although they can trigger thunderstorms, warm fronts are more likely to be associated with large regions of gentle ascent (stratiform clouds and light to moderate continuous rain). are usually preceded by cirrus first (1000 km ahead), then altostratus or altocumulus (500 km ahead), then stratus and possibly fog. behind the warm front, skies are relatively clear (but change gradually)

15. The type of frontal weather depends on the stability of the warmer air:  when warm air is stable, a frontal inversion may exist in the upper frontal region, a steady light-to-moderate rainfall or frontal fog is observed in the presence of nimbostratus or stratus clouds, respectively.  when the warm air is unstable, brief periods of heavy rainfall are observed in the presence of cumulonimbus clouds.

16. Weather Feature Before frontal passage Region of frontAfter frontal passage Winds NE to EvariableS to SE Temperature cool, slowly warming steady risewarmer Dew point steady risesteadyincreases, then steady Pressure usually fallinglevels offslight rise, followed by fall Visibility poorimprovingfair Clouds Ci, Cs, As, Ns, St, fog stratusClearing with scattered Sc Precip light to moderate, can be SN or RA drizzle or nothingusually none General weather characteristics of a warm front

17. Occluded front (occlusion): a narrow zone of transition formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front.

19. Dry Line: boundary that separates moist air mass from a dry air mass also called “Dew Point Front” most commonly found just east of the Rocky Mountains; rare east of the Mississippi River common in TX, NM, OK, KS, and NE in spring and summer Rocky Mountains Dry Line Hot, dry air Gusty southwest winds Warm, moist air Southeast winds

20. States like Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska frequently experience dry lines in the spring and summer. Dry lines are extremely rare east of the Mississippi River.

21. How do fronts form? Terms 1, 5, 9: Diabatic Terms Terms 2, 3, 6, 7: Horizontal Deformation Terms Terms 10 and 11: Vertical Deformation Terms Terms 4 and 8: Tilting Terms Term 12: Vertical Divergence Terms Bluestein (Synoptic-Dynamic Met. In Mid-Latitudes, vol. II, 1993) 12 3 4 5678 9101112 Three-Dimensional Frontogenesis Equation

22. Assumptions to Simplify the Three-Dimensional Frontogenesis Equation θ θ + 1 θ + 2 y’ x’ y’ axis is set normal to the frontal zone, with y’ increasing towards the cold air (note: y’ might not always be normal to the isentropes) x’ axis is parallel to the frontal zone Neglect vertical and horizontal diffusion effects

23. Simplified Form of the Frontogenesis Equation A B C D Term A: Shear term Term B: Confluence term Term C: Tilting term Term D: Diabatic Heating/Cooling term

24. Frontogenesis: Shear Term Shearing Advection changes orientation of isotherms Carlson, 1991 Mid-Latitude Weather Systems

25. Frontogenesis: Confluence Term Cold advection to the north Warm advection to the south Carlson, 1991 Mid-Latitude Weather Systems

26. Carlson (Mid-latitude Weather Systems, 1991) Why are cold fronts typically stronger than warm fronts? Look at the shear and confluence terms near cold and warm fronts Shear and confluence terms oppose one another near warm fronts Shear and confluence terms tend to work together near cold fronts

27. Frontogenesis: Tilting Term Adiabatic cooling to north and warming to south increases horizontal thermal gradient Carlson, 1991 Mid-Latitude Weather Systems

28. Frontogenesis: Diabatic Heating/Cooling Term frontogenesis frontolysis T constantT increases T constant Carlson, 1991 Mid-Latitude Weather Systems

29. Petterssen (1968) Frontogenesis/Frontolysis with Deformation with No Diabatic Effects or Tilting Effects ß= angle between the isentropes and the axis of dilatation where: and

30. MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES  the cause of most of the stormy weather in the northern hemisphere, especially during the winter season  Understanding their structure and evolution is crucial for predicting significant weather phenomena such as blizzards, flooding rains, and severe weather.

31. Mid-latitude (or frontal) cyclones  large traveling atmospheric cyclonic storms up to 2000 kilometers in diameter with centers of low atmospheric pressure  located between 30 degrees and 60 degrees latitude (since the continental United States is located in this latitude belt, these cyclones impact the weather in the U.S.)  form along the polar front  an intense system may have a surface pressure as low as 970 millibars  normally, individual frontal cyclones exist for about 3 to 10 days moving in a generally west to east direction  precise movement of this weather system is controlled by the orientation of the polar jet stream in the upper troposphere  commonly travels about 1200 kilometers in one day

32. How many mid-latitude cyclones can you identify from this satellite image?

34. What causes mid-latitude cyclones to form? Surface extra- tropical (i.e., non- hurricane) cyclones are directly coupled with the upper- levels. Typically an upper-level trough, and its associated super- geostrophic wind maximum, move over a surface temperature gradient. Remember our equation for relative vorticity (spin) generation? Notice the 2 nd term: “baroclinic term”. The stationary front / temperature boundary provides the necessary baroclinic energy for the surface cyclone to develop. Upper-air surface

35. Stages of mid-latitude cyclone development: Two models of development

36. Mid-latitude cyclone model application: 6 June 1944 (Petterssen’s forecast)

37. Mid-latitude cyclones are "deep" pressure systems extending from the surface to the tropopause A surface low-pressure system grows if there is vertical wind shear (winds increasing with height) and thermal instability (convection). The factors that lead to lowering of the pressure at the surface are: Diverging airflow at high altitudes Inflow of warm, moist air at low and mid levels. Latent heat release caused by convection in the warm air mass sector of the growing storm system.