1. Chapter 16 Lecture Aromatic Compounds Organic Chemistry, 8 th Edition L. G. Wade, Jr.

2. Discovery of Benzene Isolated in 1825 by Michael Faraday, who determined C:H ratio to be 1:1. Named it “bicarburet of hydrogen.” Synthesized in 1834 by Eilhard Mitscherlich, who determined molecular formula to be C 6 H 6. He named it benzin. Other related compounds with low C:H ratios had a pleasant smell, so they were classified as aromatic.

3. Chapter 93 Kekulé Structure Proposed in 1866 by Friedrich Kekulé, shortly after multiple bonds were suggested. Failed to explain the existence of only one isomer of 1,2- dichlorobenzene.

4. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 164 Resonance Structures of Benzene Benzene is actually a resonance hybrid between the two Kekulé structures. The C—C bond lengths in benzene are shorter than typical single- bond lengths, yet longer than typical double-bond lengths (bond order 1.5). Benzene's resonance can be represented by drawing a circle inside the six-membered ring as a combined representation.

5. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 165 Structure of Benzene Each sp 2 hybridized C in the ring has an unhybridized p orbital perpendicular to the ring that overlaps around the ring. The six pi electrons are delocalized over the six carbons.

6. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 166 Unusual Addition of Bromine to Benzene When bromine adds to benzene, a catalyst such as FeBr 3 is needed. The reaction that occurs is the substitution of a hydrogen atom by a bromine. Addition of Br 2 to the double bond is not observed.

7. Resonance Energy Benzene does not have the predicted heat of hydrogenation of –359 kJ/mol. The observed heat of hydrogenation is –208 kJ/mol, a difference of 151 kJ. This difference between the predicted and the observed value is called the resonance energy.

8. Molar Heats of Hydrogenation

9. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 169 Annulenes Annulenes are hydrocarbons with alternating single and double bonds. Benzene is a six-membered annulene, so it can be named [6]-annulene. Cylobutadiene is [4]-annulene; cyclooctatetraene is [8]-annulene.

10. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1610 Failures of the Resonance Picture All cyclic conjugated hydrocarbons were proposed to be aromatic. However, cyclobutadiene is so reactive that it dimerizes before it can be isolated. Cyclooctatetraene adds Br 2 readily to the double bonds.

11. MO Rules for Benzene Six overlapping p orbitals must form six molecular orbitals (MOs). Three will be bonding, three antibonding. Lowest-energy MO will have all bonding interactions, no nodes. As energy of MO increases, the number of nodes increases.

12. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 912 MOs for Benzene

13. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1613 First MO of Benzene The first MO of benzene is entirely bonding with no nodes. It has very low energy because it has six bonding interactions and the electrons are delocalized over all six carbon atoms.

14. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1614 Intermediate MO of Benzene The intermediate levels are degenerate (equal in energy) with two orbitals at each energy level. Both  2 and  3 have one nodal plane.

15. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1615 All Antibonding MO of Benzene The all-antibonding  6 * has three nodal planes. Each pair of adjacent p orbitals is out of phase and interacts destructively.

16. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1616 Energy Diagram for Benzene The six  electrons fill the three bonding pi orbitals. All bonding orbitals are filled (“closed shell”), an extremely stable arrangement.

17. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 917 MOs for Cyclobutadiene

18. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1618 Electronic Energy Diagram for Cyclobutadiene Following Hund’s rule, two electrons are in separate nonbonding molecular orbitals. This diradical would be very reactive.

19. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1619 Polygon Rule The energy diagram for an annulene has the same shape as the cyclic compound with one vertex at the bottom.

20. The polygon rule gives you a fast way to draw an electronic configuration. It also provides a quick check on molecular orbitals you might draw, to see which are bonding, antibonding, and nonbonding.

21. Aromatic Requirements Structure must be cyclic with conjugated pi bonds. Each atom in the ring must have an unhybridized p orbital (sp 2 or sp). The p orbitals must overlap continuously around the ring. Structure must be planar (or close to planar) for effective overlap to occur. Delocalization of the pi electrons over the ring must lower the electronic energy.

22. Nonaromatic Compounds Nonaromatic compounds do not have a continuous ring of overlapping p orbitals and may be nonplanar.

23. Antiaromatic Compounds Antiaromatic compounds are cyclic and conjugated with overlapping p orbitals around the ring, but electron delocalization increases its electronic energy.

24. Hückel’s Rule Once the aromatic criteria are met, Hückel’s rule applies. If the number of pi electrons is (4N + 2), the system is aromatic (where N is an integer). If the number of pi electrons is (4N), the system is antiaromatic.

25. Hückel’s rule is commonly used to determine aromaticity and antiaromaticity. A continuous, planar ring of overlapping p orbitals is required for the rule to apply. Otherwise, the system is nonaromatic.

26. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1626 Orbital Overlap of Cyclooctatetraene Cyclooctatetraene assumes a nonplanar tub conformation that avoids most of the overlap between the adjacent pi bonds. Hückel's rule simply does not apply.

27. Annulenes [4]Annulene (cyclobutadiene) is antiaromatic. [8]Annulene (cyclooctatetraene) would be antiaromatic, but it’s not planar, so it’s nonaromatic. [10]Annulene is aromatic except for the isomers that are nonplanar. Larger 4N annulenes are not antiaromatic because they are flexible enough to become nonplanar.

28. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1628 [10]Annulene In the all-cis [10]annulene, the planar conformation requires an excessive amount of angle strain. The [10]annulene isomer with two trans double bonds cannot adopt a planar conformation either, because two hydrogen atoms interfere with each other.

29. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1629 MO Derivation of Hückel’s Rule Aromatic compounds have (4N + 2) electrons and the orbitals are filled. Antiaromatic compounds have only 4N electrons and have unpaired electrons in two degenerate orbitals.

30. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1630 Cyclopentadienyl Ions The cation has an empty p orbital and four pi electrons, so it is antiaromatic. The anion has a nonbonding pair of electrons in a p orbital for a total of six pi electrons, so it is aromatic.

31. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1631 Deprotonation of Cyclopentadiene By deprotonating the sp 3 carbon of cyclopentadiene, there will be a pair of electrons in one of the sp 3 orbitals. This sp 3 orbital can rehybridize to a p orbital. The six electrons in the p orbitals can be delocalized over all five carbon atoms and the compound would be aromatic.

32. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1632 Orbital View of the Deprotonation of Cyclopentadiene Deprotonation will allow the overlap of all the p orbitals in the molecule. Cyclopentadiene is not necessarily as stable as benzene and it reacts readily with electrophiles.

33. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1633 Cyclopentadienyl Cation Hückel’s rule predicts that the cyclopentadienyl cation, with four pi electrons, is antiaromatic. In agreement with this prediction, the cyclopentadienyl cation is not easily formed.

34. Resonance Forms of Cyclopentadienyl Ions

35. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1635 Cycloheptatrienyl Cation The cycloheptatrienyl cation has six pi electrons and an empty p orbital. The cycloheptatrienyl cation is easily formed by treating the corresponding alcohol with dilute (0.01N) aqueous sulfuric acid. The cycloheptatrienyl cation is commonly known as the tropylium ion.

36. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1636 Cycloheptatrienyl Ions

37. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1637 Cyclooctatetraene Dianion Cyclooctatetraene reacts with potassium metal to form an aromatic dianion. The dianion has ten pi electrons and is aromatic.

38. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1638 Which of the following is an aromatic compound? Nonaromatic Aromatic There is an sp 3 carbon in the ring, so delocalization will not be complete. All carbons are sp 3 hybridized and it obeys Hückel’s rule.

39. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1639 Pyridine Pi System Pyridine has six delocalized electrons in its pi system. The two nonbonding electrons on nitrogen are in an sp 2 orbital, and they do not interact with the pi electrons of the ring.

40. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1640 Pyridine Pyridine is basic, with a pair of nonbonding electrons available to abstract a proton. The protonated pyridine (the pyridinium ion) is still aromatic.

41. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1641 Pyrrole Pi System The pyrrole nitrogen atom is sp 2 hybridized with a lone pair of electrons in the p orbital. This p orbital overlaps with the p orbitals of the carbon atoms to form a continuous ring. Pyrrole is aromatic because it has six pi electrons (N = 1).

42. Pyrrole Pyrrole is aromatic because the lone pair on nitrogen is delocalized. N-protonated pyrrole is nonaromatic because the nitrogen is sp 3.

43. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 943 Basic or Nonbasic? Pyrimidine has two basic nitrogens. Imidazole has one basic nitrogen and one nonbasic. Only one of purine’s nitrogens is not basic.

44. Practice spotting basic and nonbasic nitrogen atoms. Most nonbasic (pyrrole- like) nitrogens have three single bonds, and a lone pair in a p orbital. Most basic (pyridine-like) nitrogens have a double bond in the ring and their lone pair in an sp 2 hybrid orbital.

45. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 945 Other Heterocyclics

46. Is the molecule below aromatic, antiaromatic or nonaromatic? N N N H Aromatic

47. Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons

48. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1648 Naphthalene Fused rings share two atoms and the bond between them. Naphthalene is the simplest fused aromatic hydrocarbon.

49. Larger Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons Formed in combustion (tobacco smoke). Many are carcinogenic. Epoxides form, combine with DNA base.

50. Mutations

51. Allotropes of Carbon Amorphous: Small particles of graphite; charcoal, soot, coal, carbon black. Diamond: A lattice of tetrahedral carbon atoms. Graphite: Layers of fused aromatic rings.

52. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1652 Diamond One giant molecule. Tetrahedral carbons. Sigma bonds, 1.54 Å. Electrical insulator.

53. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1653 Graphite Planar layered structure. Layer of fused benzene rings, bonds: 1.415 Å. Only van der Waals forces between layers. Conducts electrical current parallel to layers.

54. Some New Allotropes Fullerenes: Five- and six-membered rings arranged to form a “soccer ball” structure. Nanotubes: Half of a C 60 sphere fused to a cylinder of fused aromatic rings.

55. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1655 Fused Heterocyclic Compounds Common in nature; synthesized for drugs.

56. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 956 Common Names of Benzene Derivatives

57. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1657 Disubstituted Benzenes Numbers can also be used to identify the relationship between the groups; ortho- is 1,2-disubstituted, meta- is 1,3, and para- is 1,4.

58. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 958 Three or More Substituents Use the smallest possible numbers, but the carbon with a functional group is #1.

59. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 959 Common Names for Disubstituted Benzenes

60. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 960 Phenyl and Benzyl Phenyl indicates the benzene ring attachment. The benzyl group has an additional carbon.

61. A benzene ring substituent is a phenyl group (six carbons). A benzyl group contains an additional CH 2 group (seven carbons total).

62. Physical Properties of Aromatic Compounds Melting points: More symmetrical than corresponding alkane, pack better into crystals, so higher melting points. Boiling points: Dependent on dipole moment, so ortho > meta > para for disubstituted benzenes. Density: More dense than nonaromatics, less dense than water. Solubility: Generally insoluble in water.

63. IR and NMR Spectroscopy C ═ C stretch absorption at 1600 cm –1. sp 2 C—H stretch just above 3000 cm –1. 1 H NMR at  7–  8 for H’s on aromatic ring. 13 C NMR at  120–  150, similar to alkene carbons.

64. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 964 Mass Spectrometry

65. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 965 UV Spectroscopy

66. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 966