1. F520 Options1 Options

2. F520 Options2 Financial options contracts l An option is a right (rather than a commitment) to buy or sell an asset at a pre-specified price l The right to purchase is a call option; the right to sell is a put option l The strike price (or exercise price) is the price at which an option can be exercised l Options which can be exercised only at maturity are “European Options”; “American Options” can be exercise any time prior or at maturity l Options can be traded on exchanges or OTC markets.

3. F520 Options3 Call Options l Buying a Call Option--Gives the purchaser the right, but not the obligation, to buy the underlying security from the writer of the option at a pre- specified price »t=0 pay Ct=1 receive Max(0,PR-X) l Writing a Call Option—Gives the writer the obligation to sell the underlying security at a pre- specified price »t=0 receive Ct=1 pay Max(0,PR-X) C= Call Premium PR= Price of underlying security X= Exercise Price

4. F520 Options4 Net Payoff of a Call Option (includes call premium) A Net Payoff X Payoff of Call ($) Security Price 0 -C Buyer of a Call X A Writer of a Call Payoff of Call ($) 0 +C Security Price Net Payoff

5. F520 Options5 Value of a Call Option Intrinsic value max(0,S-X) X Price ($) Call Price Time Value Security Price

6. F520 Options6 Put Options l Buying a Put Option - Gives the purchaser the right, not the obligation, to sell the underlying security to the writer of the option at a pre-specified exercise price. »t=0 pay Pt=1 receive Max(0,X-PR) l Writing a Put Option - Gives the writer the obligation to buy the underlying security at a pre- specified price. »t=0 receive Pt=1 pay Max(0,X-PR) P= Put Premium

7. F520 Options7 Net Payoff of a Put Option X Payoff of Put ($) Security Price 0 -P Buyer of a Put X B Writer of a Put Payoff of Put ($) 0 +P Security Price Net Payoff B -(S 0 -P) +(S 0 -P) Net Payoff

8. F520 Options8 Value of a Put Option Intrinsic value max(0,X-S) X Price ($) Put Price Time Value Security Price

9. F520 Options9 Caps, Floors, and Collars l A cap is a call option where the seller guarantees to pay the buyer when the designated reference price exceed a predetermined cap price. The buyer pays a cap fee. l A floor is a put option where the seller guarantees to pay the buyer when the designated reference price falls below a predetermined floor price. The buyer pays a floor fee. l A collar is a position that simultaneously buys a cap and sells a floor.

10. F520 Options10 Option Price Option Price Intrinsic Value Time Value = + Security Price (S) Exercise Price (X) Volatility (  ) Interest rate (r) Time to Expiration (T) Call intrinsic value = max(0,S - X) Put intrinsic value = max(0,X - S)

11. F520 – Futures 11 http://www.lme.com/metals/non-ferrous/copper/

12. F520 – Futures 12 | http://www.cmegroup.com/trading/metals/base/copper_quotes_settlements_futures.html Copper Futures, price per pound, 25,000 pounds per contract Daily Settlements for Copper Future Futures (FINAL) - Trade Date: 09/13/2013 MonthOpenHighLowLastChangeSettle Estimate d Volume Prior Day Open Interest SEP 133.20103.23003.19503.2100-.00553.20705972,244 OCT 133.20603.22553.19053.2040-.00603.20303662,086 NOV 133.20153.22003.1910--.00653.20351381,577 DEC 133.20003.22703.19053.2070-.00653.203539,396106,197 JAN 143.20303.21003.1980--.00653.2075241,619 FEB 143.20903.21203.2020--.00603.2110301,108 MAR 143.23503.23553.2040 -.00703.21503,97925,423 APR 143.2115 --.00703.21904553 MAY 143.2255 3.2150--.00653.22302382,739 JUN 143.2200 --.00653.22754620 JLY 14-3.2505B---.00653.2315271,628 AUG 14-----.00653.23601649 SEP 143.24053.24753.2405--.00653.240561,195

13. F520 Options13 Understanding Option Quotes Copper Options on Futures (Call in Dec) StrikeTypeOpenHighLowLast Chan ge Settle Estimated Volume Prior Day Open Interest 317Call--.1370A--.0055.133500 318Call--.1315A--.0060.127500 319Call--.1260A--.0055.122000 320Call--.1210A--.0060.1165011 321Call--.1105A--.0060.111000 322Call--.1055A--.0060.105500 323Call--.1010A--.0065.100500 324Call-.1030B.0960A--.0065.095500

14. F520 Options14 Understanding Option Quotes Copper Options on Futures (Put in Dec) StrikeTypeOpenHighLowLast Chan ge Settle Estimated Volume Prior Day Open Interest 317Put-.1005B.0955A-+.0010.100000 318Put-.1050B.0990A-+.0005.104000 319Put--.1030A-+.0005.108500 320Put-.1180B.1075A-+.0005.1130013 321Put--.1115A-+.0005.117500 322Put--.1210A-+.0005.122000 323Put--.1255A-UNCH.127000 324Put--.1305A-UNCH.132000

15. F520 Options15 Understanding December Quotes l How much does it cost to purchase: »one call of Copper Futures Options contract (exercise price of 317)? Call =.1335 / lb * 25,000 lb per contract = $5,075.49 per contract l What is the intrinsic value of a call on Copper Futures Options (exercise price of 317)? Call = max(0,F-X) = max(0,3.20 – 3.17) = 0.03 cents Use the futures copper price (not the cash price) What is the time value of money? Option Price - Intrinsic Value = 0.1335 – 0.03 = 0.1035 / lb l What is the intrinsic value of a call on Copper Futures Options (exercise price of 324)? Call = max(0,F-X) = max(0,3.30 – 3.24) = 0 cents Use the futures copper price (not the cash price) What is the time value of money? Option Price - Intrinsic Value = 0.0955 – 0 = 0.0955 / lb l What is the intrinsic value of a call on Copper Futures Options (exercise price of 320)? Option Price - Intrinsic Value = 0.1165 – 0 = 0.1165 / lb l Why there greater intrinsic value for options near the money.

16. F520 Options16 Understanding Option Prices Option Price Intrinsic Value Time Value = + Security Price (S) Exercise Price (X) Volatility (  ) Interest rate (r) Time to Expiration (T) Call intrinsic value = max(0,S - X) Put intrinsic value = max(0,X - S)

17. F520 Options17 Value of a Call Option Intrinsic value max(0,S-X) X Price ($) Call Price Time Value Security Price

18. F520 Options18 Value of a Put Option Intrinsic value max(0,X-S) X Price ($) Put Price Time Value Security Price

19. F520 Options19 The Black-Scholes Option Pricing Model l The B-S option pricing model for a call is: C  S 0 - Xe -rT + P C = S 0 N(d 1 ) - Xe -rT N(d 2 ) where d 1 = [ln(S/X)+(r+ ½  2 )T]/  T d 2 = d 1 -  T N(d) = cumulative normal distribution

20. F520 Options20 Black-Scholes Put Price l Price of a European put is: P = C - S 0 + Xe -rT = S 0 [N(d 1 )-1] - Xe -rT [N(d2)-1] where d 1, d 2, and N(d) are defined as before.

21. F520 Options21 Black-Scholes Pricing Example l Assume: » S 0 = $100 » X = $100 » r = 5% »  = 22% » T = 1 year l Then: »d 1 = 0.34, N(d 1 ) = 0.6331 »d 2 = 0.12N(d 2 ) = 0.5478 C = S 0 N(d 1 ) - Xe -rT N(d 2 ) d 1 = [ln(S/X)+(r+ ½  2 )T]/  T d 1 = [ln(100/100)+(.05+ ½(0.22  2 )1]/(0  1 d 1 = 0 +.0742/.22 =.337274 d 2 = d 1 -  T d 2 =.33727 - 0.22/  1 =.117273

22. F520 Options22 Call Option Example l Price of a call is then: C = S 0 N(d 1 ) - Xe -rT N(d 2 ) C= 100(0.6331) - 100(0.9512)(0.5478) = $11.20 l Price of a put is then: P = S 0 [N(d 1 )-1] - Xe -rT [N(d2)-1] P = 100[.6331 - 1] - 100(1/e (.05*1) )(.5478-1) P= 100(-0.3669) - 100(0.9512)(-0.4522) = $6.32 l Double check through Put-Call Parity: P = C - S 0 + Xe -rT 6.32 = 11.20 – 100 + 100(0.9512)

23. F520 Options23 Relationship of Option and Security Prices Parameters: X = $100, T = 3 months, r = 5%, and  = 25% Changing S

24. F520 Options24 Relationship of Option Prices to Interest Rates Parameters: S=$100, X = $100, T = 3 months, and  = 25% Changing r

25. F520 Options25 Relationship of Option Prices to Volatility Parameters: S=$100, X = $100, T = 3 months, and r = 5% Changing 

26. F520 Options26 Relationship of Option Prices to Time to Expiration Parameters: S = $100, X = $100, r = 5%, and  = 25% Changing t

27. F520 Options27 Parameters of the Black-Scholes Model l Need to know: »S, X, r, T, . l All readily observable, except the last. l The interest rate should be a continuously compounded rate »To convert simple annualized rate to continuously compounded rate: r = ln(1+R)

28. F520 Options28 Volatility as a Parameter l In pricing options, analysts usually use some measure of historical volatility of the underlying security. l Volatility obtained from other than annualized returns must be converted to annualized volatility. »e.g., Variance of weekly returns must be multiplied by 52. »e.g., Standard deviation of weekly returns must be multiplied by  52.

29. F520 Options29 Implied Volatility l Alternatively, can use all the other inputs, and infer a volatility estimate from the current option price. »Is called the implied volatility. l Can then compare implied volatility with recent historical volatility. »Higher implied than historical may indicate the option is expensive. »Lower implied than historical may indicate the option is cheap.

30. F520 Options30 Implied Volatility Using the Black-Scholes Model Volatility implied by option prices Given Information S 0 = $100, X = 100 r = 8%, T = 30 days, P = $3.10, and C = $3.73 http://www.numa.com/derivs/ref/calculat/option/calc-opa.htm

31. F520 Options31 Assumptions In Original Option Pricing Model l Underlying returns log normally distributed. l Variance is constant over time. l The interest rate is constant over time. l No sudden jumps in underlying price. l No dividends. l No early exercise (i.e., European option).

32. F520 Options32 Enhancing Firm Value through Hedging l Reducing Volatility of cash flows does not guarantee increased value. l Hedging has transaction costs, so hedging is not free. l Hedging can add value if »Taxes are reduced »Transaction costs (like default risk) is reduced »When it aligns incentives to take positive NPV projects

33. F520 Options33 Unhedged

34. F520 Options34 Hedged

35. F520 Options35 Note the similarities between the payoff on stock and a call option. Net Payoff X = Debt Amount Payoff on Firm ($) Market Value of Assets 0 -C Buyer of a Call / Stock In our prior example, stockholders only get paid after the debtholders receive their value. Therefore, the value of the debt is like the exercise price on a call option. If the value of the firm is less than the value of the debt, stockholders will walk away and leave the firm to the debtholders. If the value of the firm is greater than the value of the debt, the stockholders remain in control of the firm. This also shows why reducing volatility (through hedging) does not guarantee an increase in the value of the firm. In fact, as shown in the Black Scholes formula, decreasing volatility can reduce the value of the firm to equity holders (see the hedging example several slides earlier.

36. F520 Options36 Will the Unhedged firm add a risk-free project when new capital must be added by equityholders

37. F520 Options37 Would New Bondholders add the new capital? Bondholders generally enter as subordinate to the old bonds.

38. F520 Options38 Will the hedged firm add take a risk-free project?

39. F520 Options39 Swaps l A swap is an agreement whereby two parties (called counterparties) agree to exchange periodic payments. The dollar amount of the payments exchanged is based on some predetermined dollar principal (or commodity quantity), which is called the notional amount. l It can be considered the same as entering a series of forward contracts, since it is an agreement to make the exchange at several points in the future. l Types of swaps include »Interest rate swaps »Interest rate-equity swaps »Equity swaps »Currency swaps »Commodity swaps

40. F520 Options40 Comparing Forwards and swaps l Assume the following forward prices for commodity X »3 months $0.6230 per pound »6 months$0.6305 per pound »9 months$0.6375 per pound »12 months$0.6460 per pound l A company enters 4 forward contracts (one in each month) with a promise to deliver 100,000 pounds of copper each month for the prices set above. Deliver 100,000 lbs 100,000 lbs 100,000 lbs 100,000 lbs Receive $62,300 $63,050 $63,750 $64,600 369 12 mo

41. F520 Options41 Calculating swap payment l Find the Present Value of the Cash Flows (assume 2% per quarter) PV = $62,300/(1.02) 1 + $63,050/(1.02) 2 + $63,750/(1.02) 3 + $64,600/ /(1.02) 4 = $241,433.59 l Now spread this value over 4 equal payments at the end of each period (4 period annuity). PV = $241,433.59, I = 2, N = 4, FV = 0, compute PMT PMT = $63,406.19 l A swap will have four equal payments of $63,158.72 at the end of each quarter. Deliver 100,000 lbs 100,000 lbs 100,000 lbs 100,000 lbs Receive $63,406 $63,406 $63,406 $63,406 369 12 mo

42. F520 Options42 Using Duration in Hedging l Hedge the future issuance of 90-day commercial paper. Assume today is August 10, 200X. Our projected date of cash flow needs is November 25, 200X. l The amount of commercial paper that will be issued is $50 million. l The Euro-dollar Futures contract has a face value of $1 million is if for a 90-day maturity Eurodollar issue to be made 107 days from today. l Should you take a long or a short position?

43. F520 Options43 Should you take a long or a short position? l You want to protect against rising interest rates that results in falling prices. Therefore, you want the futures contract to make money when prices fall (a short position). These profits from the futures contract will offset the lower set of funds your will be able to bring in if interest rates increase and you issue the commercial paper at a larger discount. l How many contracts do we need?

44. F520 Options44 How many contracts do we need? Formula from Hedging notes: $ amt. of security duration of asset # of Contracts = --------------------------- X ------------------------ $ amt. of fut. contract duration of future sec $50,000,000 90-days # of Contracts = ----------------------- X ------------------------ = 50 $1,000,000 90-days contracts

45. F520 Options45 If commercial paper rates go up by 40 basis points (from 3.53% to 3.93%) and Eurodollar future rates also go up by 40 basis points (from 3.565% to 3.965), how much money will get from the futures contract and how much money will we get from our commercial paper issuance? Futures contract 40 bp * $25 per basis point *50 contracts = $50,000 profit Commercial paper issuance: 1,000,000 * (1-.0393*(90/360)) = $990,175 x 50 contracts $49,508,750 This is exactly $50,000 less than what we had anticipated raising if rates had remained at 3.53%. Between the profits from the futures contract and the expected commercial paper issuance proceeds, we have locked in our expected cash flow. Now let’s just hope that our basis risk (difference between spot and futures prices) remains the same over this time period. Notes: The change in $1 million for a 1 bp interest rate change is equal to $1,000,000*(.0001*(90/360)) = $25 1,000,000 * (1-.0353*(90/360)) = $990,175 x 50 contracts $49,558,750

46. F520 Options46 How many contracts do we need? Situation 2 If we had a desire to issue commercial paper 107 days from now with 120-days to maturity, how many contracts would we need? $50,000,000 120-days # of Contracts = --------------------- X --------------------- = 66.67 $1,000,000 90-days contracts

47. F520 Options47 Contracts l Options and Futures http://www.cmegroup.com/education/getting-started.html http://www.cmegroup.com/education/getting-started.html l Future and Option contracts http://www.cmegroup.com/globex/ http://www.cmegroup.com/globex/ l www.cmegroup.com www.cmegroup.com