1. The Agenda Review structure of arguments Practice coming up with claims, reasons and warrants Proposal Arguments Discuss the next writing assignment

2. Structure of an Argument Review: What are the five parts of an argument?

3. Structure of an Argument Modern Structure Introduction (Classical: Exordium) Background (Classical: Narratio) Lines of Argument (Classical: Partitio, Confirmatio) Alternative Arguments (Classical: Refutatio) Conclusion (Classical: Peroratio)

4. Structure of an Argument Introduction Gets readers’ interest and willingness to listen Establishes your qualifications to write about the topic Establishes some common ground with your readers Demonstrates that you’re fair and evenhanded States your claim

5. Structure of an Argument Background Presents information, including personal narrative, that’s important to your argument Lines of Argument Presents good reasons, including logical and emotional appeals, in support of your claim

6. Structure of an Argument Alternative Arguments Examines alternative points of view and opposing arguments Notes the advantages and disadvantages of these views Explains why your view is better than others

7. Structure of an Argument Conclusion Summarizes the argument Elaborates on the implications of your claim Makes clear what you want the audience to think or do Reinforces your credibility and perhaps offers an emotional appeal

8. Structure of an Argument Look at the Declaration of Independence and find the following elements … Introduction Background Lines of Argument

9. Toulmin Argument Named for British philosopher Stephen Toulmin Five parts Claim – the argument you wish to prove Qualifiers – any limits you place on your claim Reasons/Evidence – support for your claim Warrants – underlying assumptions that support your claim Backing – evidence for warrant

10. Toulmin Argument Claims Debatable and controversial May start out as sweeping and overly simplistic but will progress toward something more reasonable and subtle Vegetarianism is the best choice of diet. NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars.

11. Toulmin Argument Claims Can begin to develop a claim by first coming up with reasons to support it or finding evidence that backs up the point … Look at the example on p. 134 Evidence and Reason(s) So Claim

12. Toulmin Argument Claims Once you make a claim, people will automatically start questioning it How do you know your evidence is good? Do the reasons really support your claim? There must be a logical and persuasive connection between a claim and the reasons and data supporting it This connection is called the warrant

13. Toulmin Argument Warrants Answer the question: How do I get from the data to the claim? Evidence and Reason(s) So Claim Because Warrant

14. Toulmin Argument Warrants Look for the general principle that allows you to justify the move from a reason to a specific to a specific claim – the bridge connecting them Often a value or a principle that you share with your readers Refresher: What’s an enthymeme? A statement that links a claim to a supporting reason Gas-fueled cars should be illegal because they pollute the environment.

15. Toulmin Argument Warrants Enthymeme: Don’t eat that mushroom because it’s poisonous! The warrant is that anything that’s poisonous shouldn’t be eaten. Or … If something is poisonous, it’s dangerous to eat. Reason: The mushroom is poisonous Claim: So don’t eat it! Because: Eating poisonous things is dangerous

16. Toulmin Argument Practice Enthymeme: ______________________________ __________________________________________ Reason:Claim: Because:

17. Toulmin Argument Backing Support for warrants Enthymeme: NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars because Americans need a unifying national goal. What’s the claim? What’s the reason? Warrant: What unifies the nation ought to be a national priority.

18. Toulmin Argument Backing Americans want to be part of something bigger than themselves Emotional appeal as evidence In a country as diverse as the United States, common purposes and values help make the nation stronger. Ethical appeal as evidence In the past, government investments such as the Hoover Dam and the Apollo moon program enabled many – though not all – Americans to work toward common goals. Logical appeal as evidence

19. Toulmin Argument Qualifiers Make writing more precise and honest (believable) by acknowledging limitations of your case … Few It is possible Rarely Most In general Often For the most part Typically

20. Toulmin Argument Practice with Qualifiers Enthymeme: You will get into law school because your LSAT scores are in the 98 th percentile. How can this be qualified? Reason: Your LSAT scores are in the 98 th percentile Claim: So, you will likely get into law school Because: High LSAT scores are an important factor in law school admission

21. Proposal Arguments Provide thoughtful reasons for supporting or resisting change The simplest form … A should do B because of C “The student government should endorse the Academic Bill of Rights because students should not be punished in their courses for their personal political views.”

22. Proposal Arguments Three main characteristics: They call for change, often in response to a problem They focus on the future They center on the audience

23. Proposal Arguments Consider the audience carefully General audience – avoid using technical language or jargon; keep points simple and straightforward; charts also work Specialized audience – tailor language to suit technical or specialized knowledge; be ready to dig deeper into the issue because this audience will have questions

24. Proposal Arguments Four Steps Define a problem that needs a solution or a need that is not currently addressed Paint a vivid picture of the problem/need – give it a “face” and show how it affects a broad audience Underscore why problem/need is important/urgent and why previous “fixes” may have failed Make a strong claim that addresses the problem or need. Your solution should be an action directed at the future. A proposal of what X or Y should do followed by the reason(s) that X or Y should act and the effects of adopting the following proposal.

25. Proposal Arguments Four Steps Show why your proposal will fix the problem or address the need. Relate the claim to the need or problem that it addresses; use facts or other evidence; personal experience works, too. Demonstrate the feasibility of your proposal. More evidence – from similar cases, experience, observational or other data, etc. Mention $$ if your proposal costs money.