1. Membrane Structure and Function
AP Biology
Membrane Structure and Function

2. Plasma Membrane
Boundary that separates the living cell from nonliving surroundings.
About 8 nm thick, and is selectively permeable
Controls traffic into and out of the cell
Ability of the plasma membrane to move materials is due to its structure.

3. Phospholipid
Structure of the
Plasma membrane

4. Membrane Structure
Membranes are composed mainly of phospholipids, which are amphipathic molecules (having hydrophilic and hydrophobic areas). Proteins are embedded in the membrane.
Fluid mosaic model

7. Fluidity of Membranes
Membrane held together by hydrophobic interactions
Phospholipids and proteins can move about within the membrane
Elements of the cytoskeleton may hold some proteins in place
Membranes remain fluid as temp. decreases up to the point the phospholipids settle into a close-packed arrangement.
Cholesterol acts as a buffer to resist changes in temperature.

9. Experiment: Membrane protein movement
Researchers labeled the plasma membrane proteins of a mouse and a human cell, then fused them.
Results: Mixing the mouse and human proteins produced a hybrid, showing that some proteins move sideways within the membrane.

10. Membrane proteins and their functions
Phospholipids form the main fabric of the membrane, but proteins determine its specific function.
Integral proteins-penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer. Many are transmembrane proteins that completely span the membrane.
Peripheral proteins- not embedded in the membrane. Appendages loosely bound to membrane surface.

11. Structure of a
transmembrane
protein

13. Six major functions of membrane proteins
Transport
Enzymatic activity
Signal transduction
Cell-cell recognition
Intercellular joining
Attachment of the cytoskeleton and ECM

15. Membrane surfaces
Membranes are bifacial, having a side facing inside the cell and a side facing the cytoplasm.
Two lipid bilayers may vary in composition.
Membrane synthesis and modification by the ER and Golgi determines the distribution of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.

17. Cell-Cell Recognition
Cell recognition is the ability of a cell to determine if other cells it encounters are alike or different from itself.
Essential for sorting embryonic cells into tissues and organs, and rejection of foreign cells by the immune system
Carbohydrates, glycolipids and glycoproteins,
on the external surface of the cell membrane act as “markers”.
These can vary between species, individuals, and among the cells of the same individual.

18. Traffic Across Membranes
Membrane’s molecular organization results in selective permeability.
Selective permeability of a membrane depends on solubility characteristics of the phospholipid bilayer and the presence of integral transport proteins.

19. Permeability of the Lipid bilayer
Nonpolar (hydrophobic) molecules dissolve in the membrane and cross it easily (hydrocarbons, O2, and CO2)
Small, polar (hydrophilic) uncharged molecules such as water pass freely
Large uncharged polar molecules and all ions have difficulty penetrating the hydrophobic layer.

20. Transport Proteins
Polar molecules and specific ions can pass through the hydrophobic layer of the cell membrane through transport proteins that span the membrane.
Some materials pass through protein channels, while others bind to the protein and are physically moved across. Ex) glucose enters liver cells by very selective transport proteins

21. Passive Transport
Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane.
Diffusion- net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration (down the concentration gradient)
Results from kinetic energy of molecules. Does not require energy input.
Diffusion continues until a dynamic equilibrium is reached (no net directional movement)

23. Osmosis
Osmosis is the passive transport of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Relative concentration terms:
a) Hypertonic- solution with greater solute concentration than inside the cell.
b) Hypotonic- solution with lower solute concentration than inside the cell.
c) Isotonic- solution with equal solute concentration compared to that inside a cell.

25. Movement of Water
If two solutions are separated by a selectively permeable membrane that is permeable to water but not to solute, water will diffuse from the hypoosmotic solution to the hyperoosmotic solution.
Water move to DILUTE!
Direction of osmosis is determined by the difference in total solute concentration, regardless of the types of solutes in the solutions.
At equilibrium, water molecules move in both directions at the same rate. (True for isotonic solutions also)

27. Cell Survival
Balance of water between the cell and its environment are crucial to organisms.
Osmoregulation- control of water balance.
Animal cells (no cell walls) have adaptations for osmoregulation. Ex) Paramecium have contractile vacuoles
Plants can take in water and become turgid (firm), while in isotonic solutions cells become flaccid (limp). In hypertonic solutions, the plant cell shrivels and plasmolysis occurs.

29. Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion of polar molecules and ions across a membrane with the aid of transport proteins.
Proteins have a specialized binding site for the solute they transport.
Some proteins have gated channels that open or close in response to a stimulus.

30. Facilitated Diffusion

31. Active Transport
Pumping of solutes against the concentration gradient, requiring energy from the cell.
Sodium-potassium pump allows cells to exchange Na+ and K+ across animal cell membranes.

34. Ion Pumps
Because anions and cations are unequally distributed across plasma membranes, all cells have voltages across their plasma membrane (membrane potential).
Forces that drive passive transport of ions across membranes include: concentration gradient of the ion (chemical force), and effect of membrane potential (electrical force) on the ion.
The combination of these forces is called the electrochemical gradient.

35. Electrogenic Pumps
Transport proteins that generate voltage across a membrane.
Na+/K+ ATPase is the major electrogenic pump in animal cells
A proton pump (H+) is the major electrogenic pump in plants, bacteria, and fungi.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts use a proton pump to drive ATP synthesis.
Voltages created by electrogenic pumps are sources of potential energy available to do cellular work.

37. Cotransport
Process where a single ATP-powered pump actively transports one solute and indirectly drives the transport of other solutes against their concentration gradients.
Example: Plants use the mechanism of sucrose/H+ cotransport to load sucrose produced by photosynthesis into specialized cells in the veins of leaves. Transport proteins can move sucrose into the cell against the concentration gradient only if it travels with the H+ ion.

39. Movement of Large molecules
Water and small molecules cross membranes by passing through the phospholipid bilayer or being carried by a transport protein.
Large molecules such as proteins and polysaccharides cross membranes by the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis.

40. Exocytosis
Process of exporting macromolecules from a cell by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.
Vesicle usually budded from the ER or Golgi and migrates to plasma membrane
Used by secretory cells to export products, such as insulin in the pancreas or neurotransmitters from neurons.

41. Endocytosis
Process of importing macromolecules into a cell forming vesicles derived from the plasma membrane.
Vesicle forms from a localized region of plasma membrane that sinks inward, pinches off into the cytoplasm.
Used by cells to incorporate extracellular substances.

42. Types of Endocytosis: Phagocytosis
Endocytosis of solid particles.
Cell engulfs particle with pseudopodia, and pinches off a food vacuole.
Vacuole fuses with a lysosome containing hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes that break down the particle.

43. Phagocytosis of a
bacterial cell by an
amoeba

44. Pinocytosis Endocytosis of fluid droplets
Extracellular fluid is engulfed in small vesicles
Nonspecific in the substances it transports. Cell takes in all solutes dissolved in the droplet.

45. Pinocytosis of
fluid into cell
lining a blood
vessel

46. Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
More discriminating process than pinocytosis
Coated pits form vesicles when specific molecules (ligands) bind to receptors on the cell surface.
After ingested material is released from the vesicle for metabolism, the receptors are recycled to the plasma membrane.

47. Receptor-mediated endocytosis