1. Potentiometry and potentiometric measurements

2. potentiometer A device for measuring the potential of an electrochemical cell without drawing a current or altering the cell’s composition. Potentiometric measurements: Potentiometric measurements are made using a potentiometer to determine the difference in potential between a working (an indicator) electrode and a counter (a reference) electrode. - Cathode is the working/indicator electrode. (right half-cell) - Anode is the counter/reference electrode. (left half-cell)

3. Ecell = Ec ─ Ea Where : Ec is the reduction potential at the cathode. : Ea is the reduction potential at the anode. The role of the counter electrode is reduced to that supplying a reference potential thus the counter electrode is called the reference electrode.  Indicator Electrode: electrode that responds to analyte and donates/accepts electrons  Reference Electrode: second ½ cell at a constant potential  Cell voltage is difference between the indicator and reference electrode

4. Potentiometry Use of Electrodes to Measure Voltages that Provide Chemical Information. –Various electrodes have been designed to respond selectively to specific analytes Indicator Electrodes 1.)Two Broad Classes of Indicator Electrodes Metal Electrodes Develop an electric potential in response to a redox reaction at the metal surface Ion-selective Electrodes Selectively bind one type of ion to a membrane to generate an electric potential

5. Metallic indicator electrodes: 1- Electrodes of the first kind: An electrode of this type is a metal in contact with a solution containing its cation. The most common ones: a- Silver electrode (dipping in a solution of AgNO 3 ) Ag + + e ↔ Ag b- Copper electrode: Cu +2 + 2e ↔ Cu c- Zn electrode: Zn +2 + 2e ↔ Zn 2- Electrode of the second kind: Electrode of this kind is a metal wire that coated with one of its salts precipitate. A common example is silver electrode and AgCl as its salt precipitate. 3- Redox electrode: An inert electrode that serves as a source of sink for electrons for redox half reaction, or in another words; an inert metal is in contact with a solution containing the soluble oxidized and reduced forms of the redox half-reaction. The inert metal is usually is platinum (Pt).

6. Ion-selective Electrodes pH Measurement with a Glass Electrode Glass electrode is most common ion-selective electrode Combination electrode incorporates both glass and reference electrode in one body Ag(s)|AgCl(s)|Cl - (aq)||H + (aq,outside) H + (aq,inside),Cl - (aq)|AgCl(s)|Ag(s) Outer reference electrode [H + ] outside (analyte solution) [H + ] insideInner reference electrode Glass membrane Selectively binds H + Electric potential is generated by [H+] difference across glass membrane

7. The glass pH electrode: Advantages over other electrodes for pH measurements: Its potential is essentially not affected by the presence of oxidizing or reducing agents. It operates over a wide pH range. It responds fast and functions well in physiological systems. Principle: For measurement, only the bulb needs to be submerged. There is an internal reference electrode and electrolyte (Ag| AgC||Cl─) for making electrical contact with the glass membrane, its potential is necessarily constant and is set by the concentration of HCl.

8. Theory of the glass membrane potential: The pH electrode functions as a result of ion exchange on the surface of a hydrated layer. The membrane of a pH glass electrode consists of chemically bonded Na2O and SiO2. For the electrode to become operative, it must be soaked in water. During this process, the outer surface of the membrane becomes hydrated. When it is so, the sodium ions are exchanged for protons in the solution: SiO─ Na + (solid) + H + (solution) ↔ SiO─H + (solid) + Na + (solution) The protons are free to move and exchange with other ions. Charge is slowly carried by migration of Na+ across glass membrane Potential is determined by external [H + ]