1. Expectancy Theory

2. Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory proposes that an individual will decide to behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be

3. Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory is about the mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In the study of organizational behavior, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management.

4. Expectancy theory - Author
In 1964, Vroom developed the Expectancy theory through his study of the motivations behind decision making. His theory is relevant to the study of management. Currently, Vroom is a John G. Searle Professor of Organization and Management at the Yale University School of Management.

5. Expectancy theory - Key elements
Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I)

6. Expectancy theory - Key elements
Three components of Expectancy theory: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence

7. Expectancy theory - Valence- V(R)
Expectancy Theory of motivation can help managers understand how individuals make decisions regarding various behavioral alternatives. The model below shows the direction of motivation, when behavior is energized:

8. Expectancy theory - Management
Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory is one such management theory focused on motivation

9. Expectancy theory - Management
Expectancy Theory, though well known in work motivation literature, is not as familiar to scholars or practitioners outside that field.

10. Expectancy theory - Models of Teacher Expectancy Effects
These findings are particularly relevant because they show a form of the expectancy theory and how teachers have certain expectations of students and how they treat the students differently because of those expectations.

11. Expectancy theory - Criticisms
Edward Lawler claims that the simplicity of expectancy theory is deceptive because it assumes that if an employer makes a reward, such as a financial bonus or promotion, enticing enough, employees will increase their productivity to obtain the reward

12. Expectancy theory - Criticisms
Lawler argues that since there have been a variety of developments of expectancy theory since its creation in 1964; the expectancy model needs to be updated

13. Expectancy theory - Criticisms
Instead of just looking at expectancy and instrumentality, W.F. Maloney and J.M. McFillen found that expectancy theory could explain the motivation of those individuals who were employed by the construction industry. For instance, they used worker expectancy and worker instrumentality. Worker expectancy is when supervisors create an equal match between the worker and their job. Worker instrumentality is when an employee knows that any increase in their performance leads to achieving their goal.

14. Expectancy theory - Criticisms
In a chapter entitled "On the Origins of Expectancy Theory" published in Great Minds in Management by Ken G. Smith and Michael A. Hitt, Vroom himself agreed with some of these criticisms and stated that he felt that the theory should be expanded to include research conducted since the original publication of his book.

15. Expectancy theory - Related theories
Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Porter & Lawler, 1968; Vroom, 1964) is one of the process theories. This theory is a model of behavioral choice, that is, as an explanation of why individuals choose one behavioral option over others. In doing so, it explains the behavioral direction process. It does not attempt to explain what motivates individuals, but rather how they make decisions to achieve the end they value.

16. Expectancy theory - Further reading
Droar, D. (2006). Expectancy theory of motivation. Retrieved October 2, 2010, from

17. Work motivation - Expectancy theory
According to Vroom's Expectancy Theory, an employee will work smarter and/or harder if he believes his additional efforts will lead to valued rewards. Expectancy theory explains this increased output of effort by means of the equation

18. Work motivation - Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory has been shown to have useful applications in designing a reward system

19. Work motivation - Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory posits employee satisfaction to be an outcome of performance rather than the cause of performance

20. Work motivation - Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory has been shown to have greater validity in research in within-subject designs rather than between-subjects designs. That is, it is more useful in predicting how an employee might choose among competing choices for their time and energy, rather than predicting the choices two different employees might make.

21. Employee motivation - Vroom's expectancy theory
The expectancy theory of motivation was established by Victor Vroom with the belief that motivation is based on the expectation of desired outcomes

22. Language expectancy theory
'Language Expectancy Theory' ('LET') is a theory of persuasion.M. Burgoon and Miller, 1985; M. Burgoon, Hunsaker Dawson, 1994; M. Burgoon, Jones Stewart, 1975 The theory assumes language is a rules-based system, in which people develop expected norms as to appropriate language usage in given situationsM. Burgoon and Miller Furthermore, unexpected linguistic usage can affect the receiver's behavior resulting from attitudes towards a persuasive message.

23. Language expectancy theory - Violations
Usually people use language to conform to social norms; but a person's intentional or accidental deviation from expected behavior can have either a positive or negative reaction.Language Expectancy Theory assumes that language is a rule-governed system and people develop expectations concerning the language or message strategies employed by others in persuasive attempts (Burgoon, 1995)

24. Language expectancy theory - Summary of Propositions
Language expectancy theory is based on 17 propositions. Those propositions can be summarized as listed below:

25. Irving Kirsch - Response expectancy theory
Kirsch’s response expectancy theory is based on the idea that what people experience depends partly on what they expect to experience. According to Kirsch, this is the process that lies behind the placebo effect and hypnosis. The theory is supported by research showing that both subjective and physiological responses can be altered by changing people’s expectancies. The theory has been applied to understanding pain, depression, anxiety disorders, asthma, addictions, and psychogenic illnesses.

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