1. The Foundations of Chemistry
CHAPTER ONE
The Foundations of Chemistry

2. Chapter Outline Matter and Energy States of Matter
Chemical and Physical Properties
Chemical and Physical Changes
Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements
Measurements in Chemistry
Units of Measurement

3. Chapter Outline Use of Numbers
The Unit Factor Method (Dimensional Analysis)
Percentage
Density and Specific Gravity
Heat and Temperature
Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat

4. Matter and Energy - Vocabulary
Chemistry
Science that describes matter – its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes
Matter
Anything that has mass and occupies space.
Energy
The capacity to do work or transfer heat.
Scientific (natural) law
A general statement based the observed behavior of matter to which no exceptions are known.

5. Natural Laws Law of Conservation of Mass Law of Conservation of Energy
Law of Conservation of Mass-Energy
Einstein’s Relativity
E=mc2

6. Scientific Method Observation Hypothesis Observation or experiment
Theory
Law

7. States of Matter
Solids

8. States of Matter
Solids
Liquids

9. States of Matter
Solids
Liquids
Gases

10. States of Matter
Change States
heating
cooling

11. States of Matter
Illustration of changes in state
requires energy

12. Chemical and Physical Properties
Chemical Properties - chemical changes
rusting or oxidation
chemical reactions
Physical Properties - physical changes
changes of state
density, color, solubility
Extensive Properties - depend on quantity
Intensive Properties - do not depend on quantity

13. Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements
matter in which all samples have identical composition and properties
Elements
substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances via chemical reactions
Elemental symbols
found on periodic chart

14. Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements

15. Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements
substances composed of two or more elements in a definite ratio by mass
can be decomposed into the constituent elements
Water is a compound that can be decomposed into simpler substances – hydrogen and oxygen

16. Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements

17. Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements
composed of two or more substances
homogeneous mixtures
heterogeneous mixtures

18. Measurements in Chemistry
Quantity Unit Symbol
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
current ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
amt. substance mole mol

19. Measurements in Chemistry Metric Prefixes
Name Symbol Multiplier
mega M
kilo k
deka da
deci d
centi c

20. Measurements in Chemistry Metric Prefixes
Name Symbol Multiplier
milli m
micro 
nano n
pico p
femto f

21. Units of Measurement Definitions Mass Weight
measure of the quantity of matter in a body
Weight
measure of the gravitational attraction for a body

22. Units of Measurement Common Conversion Factors Length Volume
1 m = inches
2.54 cm = 1 inch
Volume
1 liter = 1.06 qt
1 qt = liter
See Table 1-7 for more conversion factors

23. Use of Numbers Exact numbers Accuracy Precision
1 dozen = 12 things for example
Accuracy
how closely measured values agree with the correct value
Precision
how closely individual measurements agree with each other

24. Use of Numbers Significant figures
digits believed to be correct by the person making the measurement
Measure a mile with a 6 inch ruler vs. surveying equipment
Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures
= 1 dozen
because it is an exact number

25. Significant Figures - Rules
Use of Numbers
Significant Figures - Rules
Leading zeroes are never significant
has three significant figures
Trailing zeroes may be significant
must specify significance by how the number is written
1300 nails - counted or weighed?
Use scientific notation to remove doubt
2.40 x 103 has ? significant figures

26. Use of Numbers Scientific notation for logarithms
take the log of 2.40 x 103
log(2.40 x 103) = 3.380
How many significant figures?
Imbedded zeroes are always significant
has five significant figures

27. Use of Numbers
Piece of Black Paper – with rulers beside the edges

28. Use of Numbers Piece of Paper Side B – enlarged
How long is the paper to the best of your ability to measure it?

29. Use of Numbers Piece of Paper Side A – enlarged
How wide is the paper to the best of your ability to measure it?

30. Use of Numbers
Determine the area of the piece of black paper using your measured values.
Compare your answer with your classmates.
Where do your answers differ in the numbers?
Significant figures rules for multiplication and division must help us determine where answers would differ.

31. Use of Numbers Multiplication & Division rule Easier of the two rules
Product has the smallest number of significant figures of multipliers

32. Use of Numbers Multiplication & Division rule Easier of the two rules
Product has the smallest number of significant figures of multipliers

33. Use of Numbers Multiplication & Division rule Easier of the two rules
Product has the smallest number of significant figures of multipliers

34. Use of Numbers
Determine the perimeter of the piece of black paper using your measured values.
Compare your answer with your classmates.
Where do your answers differ in the numbers?
Significant figures rules for addition and subtraction must help us determine where answers would differ.

35. Use of Numbers Addition & Subtraction rule
More subtle than the multiplication rule
Answer contains smallest decimal place of the addends.

36. Use of Numbers Addition & Subtraction rule
More subtle than the multiplication rule
Answer contains smallest decimal place of the addends.

37. Use of Numbers Addition & Subtraction rule
More subtle than the multiplication rule
Answer contains smallest decimal place of the addends.

38. The Unit Factor Method
Simple but important method to get correct answers in word problems.
Method to change from one set of units to another.
Visual illustration of the idea.

39. The Unit Factor Method
Change from a to a by obeying the following rules.

40. The Unit Factor Method
Change from a to a by obeying the following rules.
Must use colored fractions.

41. The Unit Factor Method
Change from a to a by obeying the following rules.
Must use colored fractions.
The box on top of the fraction must be the same color as the next fraction’s bottom box.

42. The Unit Factor Method Fractions to choose from R R O B O B B O R O B

43. The Unit Factor Method Fractions to choose from O R R R O B O B B O R

44. The Unit Factor Method Fractions to choose from O B R R O R O B O B B

45. The Unit Factor Method Fractions to choose from O B B R B R O B R O B

46. The Unit Factor Method Fractions to choose from O B B R B R O B R O B

47. The Unit Factor Method Fractions to choose from O B B R B R O B R O B

48. The Unit Factor Method Fractions to choose from O B B R B R O B R O B

49. The Unit Factor Method colored fractions represent unit factors
1 ft = 12 in becomes or
Example 1-1: Express 9.32 yards in millimeters.

50. The Unit Factor Method

51. The Unit Factor Method

52. The Unit Factor Method

53. The Unit Factor Method

54. The Unit Factor Method O B B T R T R O B B

55. The Unit Factor Method
Example 1-2: Express 627 milliliters in gallons.
You do it!

56. The Unit Factor Method
Example 1-2. Express 627 milliliters in gallons.

57. The Unit Factor Method
Example 1-3: Express 3.50 (short) tons in grams.
You do it!

58. The Unit Factor Method
Example 1-3: Express 3.50 (short) tons in grams.

59. The Unit Factor Method
Area is two dimensional thus units must be in squared terms.
Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104 cm2 in ft2.

60. The Unit Factor Method
Area is two dimensional thus units must be in squared terms.
Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104 cm2 in ft2.
common mistake

61. The Unit Factor Method
Area is two dimensional thus units must be in squared terms.
Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104 cm2 in ft2. O R P

62. The Unit Factor Method
Area is two dimensional thus units must be in squared terms.
Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104 cm2 in ft2. O R R

63. The Unit Factor Method
Area is two dimensional thus units must be in squared terms.
Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104 cm2 in ft2.

64. The Unit Factor Method
Area is two dimensional thus units must be in squared terms.
Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104 cm2 in ft2.

65. The Unit Factor Method
Volume is three dimensional thus units must be in cubic terms.
Example 1-5: Express 2.61 ft3 in cm3.
You do it!

66. The Unit Factor Method
Volume is three dimensional thus units must be in cubic terms.
Example 1-5: Express 2.61 ft3 in cm3.

67. Percentage Percentage is the parts per hundred of a sample.
Example 1-6: A 335 g sample of ore yields 29.5 g of iron. What is the percent of iron in the ore?
You do it!

68. Percentage Percentage is the parts per hundred of a sample.
Example 1-6: A 335 g sample of ore yields 29.5 g of iron. What is the percent of iron in the ore?

69. Density and Specific Gravity
density = mass/volume
What is density?
Why does ice float in liquid water?

70. Density and Specific Gravity
density = mass/volume
What is density?
Why does ice float in liquid water?
H2O(s)
H2O(l)

71. Density and Specific Gravity
Example 1-7: Calculate the density of a substance if 742 grams of it occupies 97.3 cm3.

72. Density and Specific Gravity
Example 1-7: Calculate the density of a substance if 742 grams of it occupies 97.3 cm3.

73. Density and Specific Gravity
Example 1-8 Suppose you need 125 g of a corrosive liquid for a reaction. What volume do you need?
liquid’s density = 1.32 g/mL
You do it!

74. Density and Specific Gravity
Example 1-8 Suppose you need 125 g of a corrosive liquid for a reaction. What volume do you need?
liquid’s density = 1.32 g/mL

75. Density and Specific Gravity
Example 1-8 Suppose you need 125 g of a corrosive liquid for a reaction. What volume do you need?
liquid’s density = 1.32 g/mL

76. Density and Specific Gravity
Water’s density is essentially 1.00 at room T.
Thus the specific gravity of a substance is very nearly equal to its density.
Specific gravity has no units.

77. Density and Specific Gravity
Example 1-9: A gram piece of chromium is dipped into a graduated cylinder that contains 5.00 mL of water. The water level rises to 9.32 mL. What is the specific gravity of chromium?
You do it

78. Density and Specific Gravity
Example1-9: A gram piece of chromium is dipped into a graduated cylinder that contains 5.00 mL of water. The water level rises to 9.32 mL. What is the specific gravity of chromium?

79. Density and Specific Gravity
Example1-9: A gram piece of chromium is dipped into a graduated cylinder that contains 5.00 mL of water. The water level rises to 9.32 mL. What is the specific gravity of chromium?

80. Density and Specific Gravity
Example 1-10: A concentrated hydrochloric acid solution is 36.31% HCl and 63.69% water by mass. The specific gravity of the solution is What mass of pure HCl is contained in 175 mL of this solution?
You do it!

81. Density and Specific Gravity

82. Density and Specific Gravity

83. Density and Specific Gravity

84. Heat and Temperature Heat and Temperature are not the same thing
T is a measure of the intensity of heat in a body
3 common temperature scales - all use water as a reference

85. Heat and Temperature Heat and Temperature are not the same thing
T is a measure of the intensity of heat in a body
3 common temperature scales - all use water as a reference

86. Heat and Temperature MP water BP water Fahrenheit 32 oF 212 oF
Celsius oC cC
Kelvin K K

87. Relationships of the Three Temperature Scales

88. Relationships of the Three Temperature Scales

89. Relationships of the Three Temperature Scales

90. Relationships of the Three Temperature Scales
Easy method to remember how to convert from Centigrade to Fahrenheit.
Double the Centigrade temperature.
Subtract 10% of the doubled number.
Add 32.

91. Heat and Temperature
Example 1-11: Convert 211oF to degrees Celsius.

92. Heat and Temperature
Example 1-12: Express 548 K in Celsius degrees.

93. Heat Transfer and The Measurement of Heat
SI unit J (Joule)
calorie
1 calorie = J
English unit = BTU
Specific Heat
amount of heat required to raise the T of 1g of a substance by 1oC
units = J/goC

94. Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat
Heat capacity
amount of heat required to raise the T of 1 mole of a substance by 1oC
units = J/mol oC
Example 1-13: Calculate the amt. of heat to raise T of 200 g of water from 10.0oC to 55.0oC

95. Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat
Heat transfer equation
necessary to calculate amounts of heat
amount of heat = amount of substance x specific heat xDT

96. Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat
Heat transfer equation
necessary to calculate amounts of heat
amount of heat = amount substance x specific heat xDT

97. Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat
Heat transfer equation
necessary to calculate amounts of heat
amount of heat = amount substance x specific heat xT

98. Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat
Example 1-14: Calculate the amount of heat to raise the temperature of grams of mercury from 10.0oC to 55oC. Specific heat for Hg is J/g oC.
You do it!

99. Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat
Example 1-14: Calculate the amount of heat to raise T of 200 g of Hg from 10.0oC to 55oC. Specific heat for Hg is J/g oC.
Requires 30.3 times more heat for water
4.184 is 30.3 times greater than 0.138

100. Synthesis Question
It has been estimated that 1.0 g of seawater contains 4.0 pg of Au. The total mass of seawater in the oceans is 1.6x1012 Tg, If all of the gold in the oceans were extracted and spread evenly across the state of Georgia, which has a land area of 58,910 mile2, how tall, in feet, would the pile of Au be?
Density of Au is 19.3 g/cm Tg = 1012g.

101. Synthesis Question

102. Synthesis Question

103. Synthesis Question

104. Group Activity
On a typical day, a hurricane expends the energy equivalent to the explosion of two thermonuclear weapons. A thermonuclear weapon has the explosive power of 1.0 Mton of nitroglycerin. Nitroglycerin generates 7.3 kJ of explosive power per gram of nitroglycerin. The hurricane’s energy comes from the evaporation of water that requires 2.3 kJ per gram of water evaporated. How many gallons of water does a hurricane evaporate per day?

105. End of Chapter 1