1. Chapter 11 Overview Psychoanalytic theories Humanistic theories
Trait theories
Social-cognitive theories
Nature, nurture, and personality
Personality assessment

2. Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalysis is Freud’s theory of personality and his therapy for treating psychological disorders; focuses on unconscious processes
Personality is a person’s characteristic pattern of behaving, thinking, and feeling
Freud in American Culture (Learning Outcome Questions 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, and 11.5)
Ask how many students have heard of Sigmund Freud. Point out that Freud’s is one of the most recognized psychologists and that his ideas have had an enormous impact on American culture, as well as on the profession of psychology.
For example, it is popular to scrutinize works of art, as well as human behavior, for hidden meanings with Freudian overtones.
Ask the students to give examples from soap operas, tabloid newspapers or other popular sources of Freudian interpretations. Then discuss whether these interpretations are correct or incorrect. This is a good way to introduce the relatively dry Freudian material from a modern perspective.

3. What are the three levels of awareness in consciousness?
The conscious
All thoughts, feelings, memories of which we are aware at a given moment
The preconscious
Thoughts, feelings, memories that we are not consciously aware of but can easily bring to mind
The unconscious
The primary motivating force of human behavior
Contains repressed memories and instincts, wishes, and desires that have never been conscious
Conscious, Unconscious, and Preconscious (Learning Outcome Question 11.1)
In Freud’s view, the mind functions on three levels.
The conscious level is somewhat like short-term or working memory. It includes all the thoughts and feelings we are currently experiencing.
The preconscious contains everything we know and feel, but are not currently thinking about or experiencing. An important point is that we have ready access to the preconscious.
By contrast, the unconscious includes knowledge and feelings that are not readily accessible. Information and emotions are held in the unconscious, Freud claimed, when they are too threatening or unpleasant for us to face.
The three levels of awareness in consciousness are the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious.
The conscious mind includes everything we are thinking about at any given moment.
The preconscious includes thoughts and feelings we can easily bring to mind.
The unconscious contains thoughts and feelings that are difficult to call up because they have been repressed.

4. What are the roles of the id, the ego, and the superego?
Contains life and death instincts
Operates according to the pleasure principle
Ego
The logical, rational part of personality
Operates according to the reality principle
Superego
The moral system of the personality
Consists of the conscience and the ego ideal
Id, Ego, and Superego (Learning Outcome Question 11.2)
The three parts of personality in Freud’s theory are the id, ego, and superego.
The id, present at birth, is entirely unconscious and consists of primary drives and emotions. It operates according to the “pleasure principle” (primary process thinking).
The ego, developed in the first two years of life, is conscious and rational. Its job is to satisfy the needs of the id without regard to the needs of others or the standards of society. Thus, the ego operates according to the “reality principle” (secondary process thinking).
The superego represents the moral standards of the larger culture and develops between ages 3 and 6. It includes the conscience (“thou shalt not…”) and ego ideal (“thou shalt…”). Violations of the conscience result in guilt, while violations of the ego ideal produce shame. Obedience to both produces pride. Through its ability to induce the id to experience unpleasant (guilt and shame) and pleasant (pride) emotions, the superego is able to regulate the behavior of the ego. Remind students that the ego’s responsibility is to keep the id happy. For instance, stealing food might satisfy the id’s hunger, but it would also cause the id to experience guilt and shame. The ego has to balance the id’s primary drives against its capacity to experience moral emotions. However, a superego that is too strict can cause the id to feel unnecessary guilt or shame. Likewise, a superego that is too lax can result in excessive antisocial behavior.
An effective example to illustrate the dynamics among the id, the ego, and the superego is to tell a story. The setting of the story is a bar where a person sees an attractive member of the opposite sex. The id wants sexual gratification right then and there, no matter what the consequences. The superego, of course, prohibits it because it is wrong. The ego, working to satisfy the id, must develop a strategy that acknowledges the constraints of reality. Therefore, the ego has a plan to ask the person to dance, buy the person a drink, or start up a conversation with an opening line. This example becomes livelier if your students think of dialogue for the parts of personality.
At puberty, many students can remember being caught in the dilemma of how to express sexuality prior to marriage. Freud’s interpretation of this dilemma would involve the id pushing for sexual activity at any opportunity, while the superego favors abstinence because of parental, societal, and religious influences. Freud would further interpret this situation as the ego being caught in the middle of this conflict, with strong pressures both to engage in, and to avoid, sexual behavior. This example will be a good way to personalize your lecture.

5. Freud’s Conception of Personality
Ego is largely conscious, but partly unconscious
Superego operates at both the conscious and unconscious levels
Id is completely unconscious

6. What is the purpose of defense mechanisms?
The ego uses defense mechanisms to maintain self-esteem and protect itself from anxiety created by conflict between the id and superego
The id’s demands for pleasure often conflict with the superego’s desires for moral perfection
e.g., ego protects itself from unacceptable thoughts and memories through repression
Removing painful thoughts, memories, desires from consciousness and keeping them in the unconscious
Defense Mechanisms (Learning Outcome Question 11.3)
According to Freud, the ego devises cognitive strategies for coping with unpleasant emotions in the id. He called these strategies “defense mechanisms.” Students are probably familiar with rationalization, denial, and repression.
A defense mechanism is an unconscious, irrational means that the ego uses to defend against anxiety and to maintain self-esteem; it involves self-deception and the distortion of reality.
For example, through repression, (1) painful memories, thoughts, ideas, or perceptions are involuntarily removed from consciousness, and (2) disturbing sexual or aggressive impulses are prevented from breaking into consciousness.

7. What are the psychosexual stages, and why did Freud consider them important in personality development?
According to Freud, the sex instinct is the most important factor influencing personality
It is present at birth, and then develops through a series of psychosexual stages
Each stage involves an erogenous zone and a conflict
If the conflict is not resolved, the child develops a fixation, and a portion of the libido remains invested at that stage
Psychosexual Stages (Learning Outcome Question 11.4)
Freud claimed that psychosexual development proceeds in stages. In each stage, the libido (desire for physical pleasure) is focused on a different part of the body. The stages take their names from the respective body parts on which each focuses: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
The one stage that doesn’t fit the naming pattern is latency. Explain to students that the libido is latent, or hidden, during this stage as children focus on identifying with same-sex peers.
In addition to deriving pleasure from a particular body part, each stage has an associated developmental task that is the basis for a conflict between the desires of the id and the demands of society.
When the task is accomplished poorly, fixation (age-inappropriate behaviors) result. See the Review and Reflect table on page 343 for a description of the developmental tasks and fixations representative of each stage.
Freud believed that the sexual instinct is present at birth and develops through a series of psychosexual stages, and providing the driving force for all feelings and behaviors. The stages are the oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage (followed by the latency period), and genital stage.
One of the most controversial features of Freud’s stage theory is the Oedipus (male) or Elektra (female) complex, a phallic stage conflict in which the child is sexually attracted to the opposite-sex parent and feels hostility toward the same-sex parent.

8. Oral stage: Birth to 1 year
What are the psychosexual stages, and why did Freud consider them important in personality development?
Oral stage: Birth to 1 year
Conflict: Weaning
Fixation can lead to dependency and passivity or sarcasm and hostility
Anal stage: 1 to 3 years
Conflict: Toilet training
Fixation can lead to excessive cleanliness and stinginess or messiness and rebelliousness

9. What are the psychosexual stages, and why did Freud consider them important in personality development?
Phallic stage: 3 to 5 or 6 years
Conflict: Oedipus complex
Fixation can lead to flirtatiousness and promiscuity or excessive pride and chastity
Latency: 5 or 6 years to puberty
Period of sexual calm
Genital stage: Puberty on
Revival of sexual interests

10. How do the views of the neo-Freudians differ from those of Freud?
In Carl Jung’s theory, the personality has three parts
Ego
Personal unconscious
Collective unconscious
Jung rejected Freud’s ideas
that the sexual instinct is the most important determinant of personality
that personality is mostly formed in childhood
The Neo-Freudians (Learning Outcome Question 11.6)
The three components of personality in Jung’s theory are
the ego,
personal unconscious, and
collective unconscious.
Refer students to Figure 11.2 on page 345 to help them understand the characteristics and relationships among these three components.

11. How do the views of the neo-Freudians differ from those of Freud?
Alfred Adler’s theory
The predominant force of the personality is not sexual in nature
The drive to overcome feelings of inferiority motivates most human behavior
When feelings of inferiority prevent personal development, they constitute an inferiority complex
Adler claimed that the predominant force of the personality is the drive to overcome and compensate for feelings of weakness and inferiority, and to strive for superiority or significance.

12. How do the views of the neo-Freudians differ from those of Freud?
Karen Horney believed that Freud overemphasized the role of sexual instinct
She rejected his psychosexual stages and ideas such as the Oedipus complex and penis envy
She argued that women’s psychological difficulties arise from failure to live up to idealized versions of themselves
To be psychologically healthy, women and men must overcome irrational beliefs about the need for perfection
These ideas can be seen in modern cognitive-behavioral therapy
Horney took issue with Freud’s sexist view of women, and added the feminine dimension to the world of psychology.

13. Humanistic Theories
In humanistic psychology, people are assumed to have a natural tendency toward growth and the realization of their fullest potential
These theories are more optimistic about human nature than Freud’s theory
But, like Freud’s theory, humanistic theories are difficult to test scientifically
Humanistic Perspectives (Learning Outcome Question 11.7 and 11.8)
Humanistic theories are similar to those of the psychoanalysts in that these theories assume that inner conflicts influence personality.
However, the humanistic approach emphasizes the adaptive function of conflicts, rather than their capacity for producing mental illness.
Humanistic personality theories have been soundly criticized by behaviorists and others as lacking testability, being based on inadequate evidence, and being sexist. After explaining the ideas of Maslow and Rogers, ask students why, despite these criticisms, they think the humanistic approach has been such a powerful force in psychology. Are theories that purport effective use in therapeutic settings and that offer insights into behavior appropriate subject matter for psychology? Psychology often portrays itself as scientific, but then how can it use these unscientific therapy methods?

14. What are some of the traits of self-actualizers?
Abraham Maslow ( ) proposed a hierarchy of needs that motivates human behavior
The highest need is self-actualization
Self actualizers
Accurately perceive reality and quickly spot dishonesty
Tend not to depend on external authority, but are internally driven, autonomous, and independent
Frequently have peak experiences
Experiences of deep meaning, insight, and harmony within themselves and with the universe

15. Why is unconditional positive regard critical to personality?
According to Carl Rogers ( ), our parents set up conditions of worth
Conditions on which their positive regard depends
These conditions force us to live according to someone else’s values
A goal of person-centered therapy is to enable people to live by their own values
And not live by the values of others to gain positive regard
To achieve this, the therapist must give the client unconditional positive regard
According to Rogers, individuals who do not become fully functioning persons often do fail to do so because in childhood they did not receive unconditional positive regard from their parents. To gain positive regard, they had to meet their parents’ conditions of worth.
One of the variables humanistic psychologists have studied is self-esteem. Most people do not form a global idea about our own self-esteem on the basis of just one kind of success or failure. Instead, we think of ourselves in terms of strengths and weaknesses. When we view ourselves as competent in areas that we think are important, our self-esteem is high.
Children form ideas about their abilities in specific domains—academics, sports, fine art. By age 7, most children have a sense of global self-esteem as well. These judgments come both from actual experiences, information provided by others, and a child's own comparisons of his performance to that of others and to ideals she or he has about what constitutes competent performance in a given area.

16. Trait Theories
Attempts to explain personality and differences among people in terms of personal characteristics that are stable across situations
Trait theories of personality are attempts to explain personality and differences between people in terms of their personal characteristics.

17. What were some of the ideas proposed by early trait theorists?
Allport ( ) proposed two kinds of traits
Cardinal traits
Which are so pervasive that almost every act can be traced to their influences
Central traits
The kinds of traits that one would mention in a recommendation letter
Cattell’s(1950) theory
Surface traits are the observable qualities of personality
Source traits underlie surface traits, and cause certain surface traits to cluster together
Cattell identified 23 source traits
Early Trait Theories (Learning Outcome Question 11.9)
As you discuss the differences among Allport’s traits, ask students to generate examples that fit each type of trait.
A rich source of examples is television, especially sitcoms from the 1950s and 1960s.
Consider Ward Cleaver, Eddie Haskell, and Roseanne Barr as possessing specific central traits.
Think about historical figures and their cardinal traits.
Allport defined a cardinal trait as a personal quality that is so strong a part of a person’s personality that he or she may become identified with that trait or known for it. A central trait is the type you might mention when writing a letter of recommendation.
Cattell used the term surface traits to refer to observable qualities of personality. Source traits underlie the surface traits, make up the most basic personality structure, and cause behavior.

18. What were some of the ideas proposed by early trait theorists?
Eysenck ( ) proposed that there are three personality factors
Psychoticism
An individual’s link to reality
Extraversion
A dimension ranging from outgoing to shy
Neuroticism
A dimension of emotional stability, from stable to anxious and irritable
These personality factors are rooted in neurological functioning
An idea that has been supported by modern brain-imaging studies
Eysenck considers the two most important dimensions of personality to be extroversion (extroversion versus introversion) and neuroticism (emotional stability versus instability).

19. What do five-factor theorists consider to be the most important dimensions of personality?
The five-factor model is a trait theory that attempts to explain personality using five broad dimensions, each of which is composed of a constellation of personality traits
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Factor Models (Learning Outcome Question 11.10)
Factor models hypothesize that there is a limited number of factors, or collections of similar traits, that comprise human personality variation. An individual’s personality can be described in terms of a profile of the degree to which each factor is expressed in his or her personality. The most influential factor model today is the five-factor model, or Big Five. The factors include
extroversion,
neuroticism,
openness to experience,
conscientiousness, and
agreeableness.

20. What do five-factor theorists consider to be the most important dimensions of personality?
Openness
Open to new experiences, curious, and broad minded versus having narrow interests and preferring the familiar
Conscientiousness
Reliable, orderly, and industrious versus undependable and lazy
Extraversion
Outgoing with a preference to be around other people versus shy with a preference to be alone
Agreeableness
Easygoing and friendly versus unfriendly and cold
Neuroticism
Pessimistic and irritable versus optimistic and able to take things in stride
Are there correlations between the five personality factors and daily hassles? A three-year longitudinal study among university students revealed that neuroticism, extroversion, and conscientiousness were concurrently correlated with daily hassles. There was only a small correlation with openness to experience and none at all with agreeableness (Vollrath, 2000).
It’s important for students to keep in mind that there is a continuum of variation for each trait. Shyness is a good example; an individual is not either shy or outgoing. Instead, there is a continuum ranging from extreme shyness to extreme outgoingness. One the shy side, there is mild shyness; it is characterized by a person's preference to be alone but includes interaction with others, albeit with difficulty. A person who is mildly shy might be labeled a "loner." A person with extreme shyness, according to Zimbardo (1977), experiences embarrassment, blushing, and offensive attack syndrome. Shyness to a large part interferes with this person's daily activities. Those most severely affected by shyness have chronic shyness; social situations are avoided because of an anticipation of having to do something in front of others.

21. Social-Cognitive Theories
The view that personality can be defined as a collection of learned behaviors acquired through social interactions
The main question concerns the degree to which situations influence the manifestation of personality traits.
The trait side says that behavior is strongly influenced by traits in all situations.
The situation side says that situations are more strongly related to behavior than traits. Most evidence supports the trait view, but there is also research supporting the idea that the ways in which traits and behavior are related is influenced by situations. (Example: A person who demonstrates the trait of honesty most of the time might steal under certain circumstances.)

22. What are the components of Bandura’s reciprocal determinism model?
Bandura proposed that internal, environmental, and behavioral variables interact to influence personality
An important cognitive factor in Bandura’s theory is self-efficacy
A person’s perception of his or her ability to perform competently whatever is attempted
Reciprocal Determinism and Locus of Control (Learning Outcome Questions and 11.13)
From the social learning perspective, Bandura (1977) has postulated a concept called reciprocal determinism that molds our personality.
Radical behaviorism totally ignores cognitive variables so that the environment is the sole cause of behavior. So-called environmental determinism analyzes how changing the environment can cause a change in behavior or personality: B = I(E) [it’s not clear what the I stands for in these equations—clarify?], behavior as a function of the environment.
Some schools of thought argue that personality (i.e., behavior) is the result of a unidirectional interaction: B = I(C, E), behavior as a function of our cognitions and the environment. A shortcoming of this approach is that it ignores the abilities of behavior to change the environment, as well as cognition, to change how we perceive and evaluate our environment.
Another approach contends that cognitive and environmental factors do interact as they produce behavior: B = I(CE). Again, behavior is believed not to influence the environment. Reciprocal determinism asserts that all three variables—cognition, overt behavior, and the environment—are interdependent and interactive. In other words, personality is explained by a continual interaction of environmental, cognitive, and behavioral determinants. Each variable determines the other variables.

23. What does locus of control contribute to personality?
Julian Rotter proposed a personality factor called locus of control
People with an internal locus of control
See themselves as primarily in control of their behavior and its consequences
People with an external locus of control
Perceive that what happens to them is in the hands of fate, luck, or chance
Bandura also suggested that self-efficacy, or the degree to which we believe we can control the outcome of a situation, is instrumental in personality.
Researchers have found that the actual degree of control in a situation is not as important as the perception of control. Phares (1988) discusses much of the research on perceived control, including a study done by Langer and Rodin (1976). They showed that much of the physical and mental deterioration observed among elderly people in nursing homes may be a result of loss of control. When the environment was changed to facilitate perceptions of control for certain residents of a nursing home, they became more alert and happy, and they felt better than a comparison group for whom no changes had been made. Phares discusses the huge volume of research associated with Rotter’s locus of control, including its theoretical foundation, its psychometric qualities, and its relationship to other psychological variables. For example, internals are more likely to work to stay healthy than externals.

24. Nature, Nurture, and Personality
Although all psychologists agree that our genes play at least some roles in personality, most also acknowledge that environmental factors influence how our traits change over time

25. What have twin and adoption studies revealed about the influence of genes on personality?
Identical twins are similar on several personality dimensions
Whether raised together or apart
Adoption studies indicate that shared family environment has little influence on personality development
These findings show that heredity strongly influences personality
Genetic Influences on Personality (Learning Outcome Question 11.14)
Research has sought to establish biological links to a number of personality variables. For example, the gender and hormonal differences associated with aggression strongly hint that aggression has a biological link. There are many more indications of biological influences on personality than were previously thought. Ask the students to develop a list of possible links for discussion in the next class period.
Some scientists believe that genes influence personality by regulating the amounts of various neurotransmitters in the brain. For example, serotonin is linked to neuroticism.
Some researchers claim that children raised in the same family differ in personality because most family influences are unique to individuals (i.e., nonshared), perhaps depending on their genetic traits. For example, parents may be emotionally warm in dealing with a child who has an easy-going temperament, but display emotional coldness towards another who is more temperamentally difficult.

26. How does personality differ across cultures?
Advocates of the five-factor model assert that the factors are universal
But other theorists argue that cultures differ in individualism/collectivism, a dimension of personality
In individualist cultures more emphasis is placed on independence and individual achievement
In collectivist cultures, people emphasize social connectedness and tend to define themselves in terms of group membership
Personality and Culture (Learning Outcome Question 11.15)
Whatever a person’s genetic make-up, different cultures encourage and discourage the exhibition of different traits. For example, the Japanese concept of amae refers to the dependence on, or the presumption of, the benevolence of another (Takeo Doi, 1962). This concept describes the attitude of children toward parents or between husband and wife. Apparently this concept governs much of family interdependence and the respect for elders that typifies Japanese family life. Japanese workers have a devotion to their employers that is governed by this same pattern.
However, there is also strong evidence for some degree of universality in personality, especially with regard to the Big Five. Recent studies of McCrae and Costa and their colleagues have found that even changes in the strength of some personality factors that are related to maturity seem to be universal. Some 7,360 subjects from five cultures as diverse as Croatia, Italy, Germany, Portugal, and South Korea were found to undergo changes in the relative strength of neuroticism, extroversion and openness—all of which tended to weaken between college age and middle adulthood. During the same period, agreeableness and conscientiousness strengthened somewhat. Similar maturational or age-related changes were also reported for subjects in the United States (McCrea et al., 2000).
Critics of personality theories point out that psychologists’ ideas about and methods of assessing personality are themselves culture-bound. Encourage students to think about how Freud’s ideas might have been influenced by 19th century Victorian culture with its strict prohibitions regarding discussions of sexuality. An emphasis on traits appears to be particularly Western; other cultural perspectives emphasize context far more than American and European psychologists do (Hall, 1996). Ask students to suggest how tests of the Big Five might be culturally biased.

27. Personality Assessment
Personality assessment is commonly used in business and industry to aid in hiring decisions
Clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and counselors use various ways of measuring personality in the diagnosis of patients and in the assessment of progress in therapy

28. How do psychologists use observations, interviews, and rating scales?
Assessment methods include
Behavioral assessment
In which behavior is observed and recorded
Structured interviews
In which an interview follows a prescribed procedure
Rating scales provide a standardized format for recording behaviors or interview responses

29. What is an inventory, and what are the MMPI-2 and CPI designed to reveal?
An inventory is a paper and pencil test with questions about a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Scored according to a standard procedure
Used to measure several dimensions of personality
Inventories (Learning Outcome Question 11.17)
Personality inventories are extremely common. Students may have completed one as part of a pre-employment screening process. Some inventories, notably the MMPI-2, are designed to assess psychopathology. Others, such as the CPI, measure differences in normal traits. Ethical standards require that psychologists use a personality measure that is appropriate for the decision it informs. However, judgments about personality cannot be based on a single test.

30. What is an inventory, and what are the MMPI-2 and CPI designed to reveal?
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) is the most widely used personality inventory
Used to screen for and diagnose psychiatric problems and disorders
Includes 550 items that differentiate specific groups of psychiatric patients from people considered to be normal
Also includes validity scales, such as a social desirability scale

31. What is an inventory, and what are the MMPI-2 and CPI designed to reveal?
California Personality Inventory (CPI)
Developed to assess personality in normal individuals
Is useful for predicting school achievement, leadership and executive success, and effectiveness of police and military personnel
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Based on Jung’s theory of personality
Measures normal individual differences on four personality dimensions

32. How do projective tests provide insight into personality, and what are some of the most commonly used projective tests?
A projective test is a personality test consisting of inkblots, drawings of ambiguous human situations, or incomplete sentences for which there are no correct or incorrect responses
People respond by projecting their inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts onto the test materials
Projective Tests (Learning Outcome Question 11.18)
Refer students to the Warm-Up Activity when defining the concept of projective assessment.
Two popular tests are the
TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) and the
Rorschach Inkblot Method.
The TAT is very much like the Warm-Up Activity. The Rorschach uses abstract inkblots, such as the one shown in Figure 11.6 on page 358. Explain to students that psychologists must be very experienced in the use of projective techniques to use them effectively. They cannot be used for definitive diagnoses of disorders or assessments of normal personality traits. Instead, they help psychologists identify themes that are important to patients. As such, they provide therapists with clues about what kinds of other assessments or therapeutic techniques may be helpful.

33. How do projective tests provide insight into personality, and what are some of the most commonly used projective tests?
In the Rorschach Inkblot Method the test taker is asked to describe 10 inkblots
According to Rorschach, responses can be used to diagnose disorders
Critics argue that results are too dependent on the judgment of the examiner
In response, Exner (1993) developed the Comprehensive System for scoring

34. How do projective tests provide insight into personality, and what are some of the most commonly used projective tests?

35. How do projective tests provide insight into personality, and what are some of the most commonly used projective tests?
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by Henry Murray
Test taker describes a series of drawings of ambiguous human situations
Descriptions are thought to reveal inner feelings, conflicts, and motives
Critics argue that
It relies too heavily on interpretation of the examiner
Responses may reflect temporary states and may not indicate more permanent aspects of personality