1. Knowledge Belief and Truth By Prof.Dr Shadia Abd Elkader Prof.Dr Shadia Abd Elkader

2. Knowledge Epistemology– the area of philosophy that deals with questions concerning knowledge and that considers various theories of knowledgethe area of philosophy that deals with questions concerning knowledge and that considers various theories of knowledge

3. Types of knowledge Knowledge acquaintanceKnowledge acquaintance Competence knowledgeCompetence knowledge Propositional knowledgePropositional knowledge

4. Acquaintance Knowledge Acquaintance Knowledge This is a kind of one has of people, places, or things, by virtue of having direct experience with them; in other words, by being "acquainted" with them. This knowledge need not be expressible in sentences. This is a kind of one has of people, places, or things, by virtue of having direct experience with them; in other words, by being "acquainted" with them. This knowledge need not be expressible in sentences.

5. Examples: Examples: I know my son. I know car. I know my son. I know car.

6. Knowledge Competence Knowledge Competence This is the kind of knowledge you have when you can do something without necessarily being able to explain how you do it. It is a kind of skill or ability. This is the kind of knowledge you have when you can do something without necessarily being able to explain how you do it. It is a kind of skill or ability.

7. Example: I know how to ride a bike, even though I cannot explain to anyone else exactly what I am doing (e.g., precisely how I push my feet on the pedals, when I make the very slight corrections to my steering, how I manage to coordinate it all so that I ride in a straight line, etc.) Example: I know how to ride a bike, even though I cannot explain to anyone else exactly what I am doing (e.g., precisely how I push my feet on the pedals, when I make the very slight corrections to my steering, how I manage to coordinate it all so that I ride in a straight line, etc.)

8. Knowledge Propositional Knowledge Propositional This is knowledge that "such-and- such" is the case. This is the kind of knowledge one has of information and facts. Unlike other kinds of knowledge, it is always specifiable. If I know that humans have walked on the moon, then I can say what it is that I know. In fact, I just did. This is knowledge that "such-and- such" is the case. This is the kind of knowledge one has of information and facts. Unlike other kinds of knowledge, it is always specifiable. If I know that humans have walked on the moon, then I can say what it is that I know. In fact, I just did.

9. Examples I know that 2+2=4, that my daughter ’ s name is Savannah, and that I graduated from the University of North Carolina. Examples I know that 2+2=4, that my daughter ’ s name is Savannah, and that I graduated from the University of North Carolina.

10. Knowledge justified as true belief Person S knows that statement p is true if and only if Person S knows that statement p is true if and only if S believes that p is true. S believes that p is true. P is true. P is true. S is sufficiently justified in believing that p is true. S is sufficiently justified in believing that p is true..

11. As philosophers we should ask "why?" about each of these three conditions. As philosophers we should ask "why?" about each of these three conditions.

12. Why Does Knowledge Require Belief? Propositional knowledge is always knowledge that "such-and-such." In order to know that "such-and-such, ” one has to have a representation of "such-and-such" in one ’ s mind. But one must also think that “ such-and- such ” is true, else one might just be considering it or imagining it, rather than knowing it. Propositional knowledge is always knowledge that "such-and-such." In order to know that "such-and-such, ” one has to have a representation of "such-and-such" in one ’ s mind. But one must also think that “ such-and- such ” is true, else one might just be considering it or imagining it, rather than knowing it.

13. A belief is a representation of some statement in our minds that we think is true A belief is a representation of some statement in our minds that we think is true

14. Sources of Belief Sources of Belief Perception: "I believe that I see a large dog chasing me." Perception: "I believe that I see a large dog chasing me." Memory: "I believe that a large dog chased me yesterday." Memory: "I believe that a large dog chased me yesterday." Testimony: "I believe that this dog does not usually bite." (Because the owners told me. Testimony: "I believe that this dog does not usually bite." (Because the owners told me. Introspection: "I believe that I am afraid of this large dog that is chasing me." Introspection: "I believe that I am afraid of this large dog that is chasing me." Reason: "I believe that either this large dog will bite me or it will not." Reason: "I believe that either this large dog will bite me or it will not."

15. Why Does Knowledge Require Truth? Why Does Knowledge Require Truth? The answer here is simply that is what we mean by "knowledge." We may be 100% convinced that p is true, and thus that we know it. The answer here is simply that is what we mean by "knowledge." We may be 100% convinced that p is true, and thus that we know it.

16. But if it turns out that p is false, then we never did know it, we only thought we did But if it turns out that p is false, then we never did know it, we only thought we did

17. Why Does Knowledge Require Justification Any old belief we hold could be true just by accident. It could be a lucky guess. And beliefs like that don ’ t count as knowledge. Any old belief we hold could be true just by accident. It could be a lucky guess. And beliefs like that don ’ t count as knowledge.

18. Why Does Knowledge Require Justification? Why Does Knowledge Require Justification? Consider some analogies: Consider some analogies: A pool or basketball shot made by an unskilled player. A pool or basketball shot made by an unskilled player. Scoring a bulls-eye on the firing range when the gun goes off by accident. Scoring a bulls-eye on the firing range when the gun goes off by accident.

19. When these things happen, you don ’ t give the people credit for having done something worthy or valuable. Same goes when someone makes a lucky guess. When these things happen, you don ’ t give the people credit for having done something worthy or valuable. Same goes when someone makes a lucky guess.

21. The Issue of Reason and Experience The Issue of Reason and Experience Analytic statements Analytic statements Synthetic statement Synthetic statement priori knowledge priori knowledge A posteriori knowledge A posteriori knowledge

22. Analytic Statements Analytic Statements An analytic statement has the following properties: An analytic statement has the following properties: Its truth or falsity is determined solely by the meaning of its terms, and Its truth or falsity is determined solely by the meaning of its terms, and even if it is true, it does not give us any real, factual information about the world. even if it is true, it does not give us any real, factual information about the world. 

23. A Priori Knowledge A Priori Knowledge A Priori Statement: A statement that can be known independently of any particular experience of the world. It is discoverable by reason (and language) alone. A Priori Statement: A statement that can be known independently of any particular experience of the world. It is discoverable by reason (and language) alone. 2+2 =4 2+2 =4 All pediatricians are doctors. All pediatricians are doctors. A Priori Knowledge: Knowledge of an a priori statement. A Priori Knowledge: Knowledge of an a priori statement.

24. Synthetic Statements A synthetic statement has the following properties: A synthetic statement has the following properties: Its truth or falsity is not determined solely by the meaning of its terms, and Its truth or falsity is not determined solely by the meaning of its terms, and it does make a factual claim about the way the world is. it does make a factual claim about the way the world is.

25. Posteriori Knowledge(Empirical) A A A Posteriori Statement: A statement that cannot be known without some experience of the world. it is not discoverable by reason (and language) alone. A Posteriori Statement: A statement that cannot be known without some experience of the world. it is not discoverable by reason (and language) alone. Some swans have white feathers. Some swans have white feathers. Copper conducts electricity better than rubber does. Copper conducts electricity better than rubber does. A Posteriori Knowledge: Knowledge of an a posteriori statement. A Posteriori Knowledge: Knowledge of an a posteriori statement.

26. Three Epistemological Questions Is it possible to have knowledge at all? Is it possible to have knowledge at all? Does reason provide us with knowledge of the world independently of experience? Does reason provide us with knowledge of the world independently of experience? Does our knowledge represent reality as it really is? Does our knowledge represent reality as it really is?