1. Unit II
The experiential meta-function and the transitivity of the clause
[Based on Gerot & Wignell, chapter 3, pp ; Bloor & Bloor, chapter 6, pp ; Martin, Matthiessen & Painter, chapter 4, pp ]

2. The verb (transitivity) in traditional grammar – classes of verbs and structure of the clause – Verb determines structure of the clause (how many and what type of complements the clause has)
Type of verbs
Structure
Intransitive verbs
S + F/P (no complement)
He ran. He walked. The water boiled
Monotransitive verbs
S + F/P + C (= DO) (one complement  DO)
He made a cake. He bought a car. He used my pencil. He saw a bird. He wanted a friend.
Ditransitive verbs
S + F/P + C (= DO) + C (= IO) (two complements  IO and DO)
He gave his brother some money.
He gave some money to his brother,
He bought his brother a car.
He bought a car for his brother.
Complex transitive
S + F/P + C (= DO) + C (= OC) (two complements  DO and OC)
They appointed him king.
They called him Neo.

3. The verb (transitivity) in traditional grammar – classes of verbs and structure of the clause
Type of verbs
Structure
Linking verbs (stative)
S + F/P + C (SC) (one complement  SC)
She is/seemed hard-working and meticulous.
She is a (renowned) scientist.
She is the head of the research team.
Linking verbs (resultative)
She became a nurse.
She went mad.
She grew tired.

4. Transitivity in traditional grammar – concern with form rather than meaning
Traditional grammar is mainly concerned with form, and, in the case of the verb, with the number and type of complements associated with each type of verb and the clause structure resulting from the choice of one or the other verb.
A functional approach to grammar, and more specifically to the verb or to transitivity, is concerned with meaning, though in both approaches the verb has a key role in determining the structure of the clause, as we will see.

5. Transitivity in Systemic Functional Grammar
TRANSITIVITY is the system or resource for construing experiential meaning, i. e. meaning about the world outside and inside the speaker.
It is the resource for construing (= interpreting and expressing) events, happenings, goings-on, mental states, sayings, behaviour and relations of different kinds.

6. Transitivity in Functional Grammar: nuclear and peripheral transitivity
Nuclear transitivity: resources that are central to the representation of events, happenings, states, relations, more specifically:
The Process
The Participant(s) involved in the Process
Peripheral transitivity: resources that are not so central to the representation of events, happenings, states, more specifically:
Circumstances

7. Transitivity in Functional Grammar: nuclear transitivity (Process and participants)
Process: the resource for sorting out/ classifying/ categorizing our experience of events and goings-on in general into a small number of types. The process is realized by verbs (lexical verb).
There are 6 to 7 process types that are generally recognized and these are on the next two slides.
Participants: people, things, etc. involved in a given process (action, going-on, happening, state). The participants are generally realized by NGps.

8. Nuclear transitivity (Basic process types: meaning and examples)
Meanings
Examples
Material
actions and happenings (outside world; observable)
He ran. The window broke. He climbed the tree.She made a cake. She broke the window. She gave him a present.
Mental
perception, cognition and affective processes (inner world; not directly observable)
I saw a bird, I heard a sound. I saw him cross the street.
I knew (the answers). I believe/think he is wrong.
I fear the outcome. I like the smell. The woman scares me. The decision pleased me.
Behavioural
human and animal physiological behaviour; human paraverbal and mental behaviour
He snored/coughed. He slept soundly. He breathed heavily.
They shouted/cried/growled.
He pondered/reflected over the problem.

9. Nuclear transitivity (Basic process types and associated participants)
Meanings
Examples
Verbal
saying (mental process that becomes observable)
He told a lie. He told a story.
He said “Hello”. “I’m tired!” he exclaimed. He answered that he was unaware of the decision.
Existential
existence
There is a bird on the tree. Ghosts exist.
Relational
being and having
He is a (famous) scientist. He is the head of the department. He has blue eyes/a car.
Meteorological
weather or time processes
It’s 8 o’clock. It’s noon. It’s windy. It’s raining/snowing.

10. Nuclear transitivity (Basic process types and associated participants)
Basic process types are distinguishable from each other in:
Meaning
Number and kind of participants
Subtypes
Distinctive features and reactances
In what follows we will look at the 7 basic types presented before and analyse them paying attention to the four critwria above:

11. Nuclear transitivity: different process types described and illustrated in more detail - Material
Participants
Subtypes
Examples
Distinctive features/ Reactances
Material
(actions and happenings – outside world – observable)
+Actor
+Actor +Range
+Goal
+ Goal & Beneficiary: (Recipient/
Client )
-middle
-m. w/range
-effective
-effective (giving type)
-He ran. The window broke.
-He climbed the tree.
-He broke the window.
He gave me flowers. He brought me flowers.
-Substitution by do (do to)
-Selection of Present progressive (Present in present) as unmarked tense in the present
-No capacity to project (see mental and verbal)

12. Participants in material processes explained
Actor: doer of the action; participant who carries out the action;
Range: participant that represents the scope of application of the action, but that is not affected by it
Goal: participant being affected or receiving the impact of the action.
Beneficiary (Recipient): participant that receives the goal being exchanged in a process of giving (to+ Ngp)
Beneficiary (Client): participant on behalf of whom sth is done (for + Ngp)

13. Participants in material processes analyzed
He ran. The window broke.
Actor Process Actor Process
He climbed the tree. He made a mistake
Actor Process Range Actor Process Range
He broke the window. He cooked the meal
Actor Process Goal Actor Process Goal
He gave/brought me flowers.
Actor Process Recipient/Client Goal

14. Material processes as “doing-words”
Material processes: the only processes that can confidently be called “doing-words” (term used in traditional school-grammar to refer to verbs in general). This is seen in the fact that they are the only ones (except maybe for some behavioural ones) that can be substituted by “do”.
One can say “What he did yesterday was go/run/walk to the park”; or “What he did to the poor man was kill him/kick him/punch him” or “What he did with the book was tear it into pieces”. But one cannot say “What he did was see a bird/ hear a strange sound” or “What he did was know the answer/understand the question” or “What he did was want a cake/fear the outcome”. These last sentences would appear illogical because the verbs in them do not express a “doing”, a material process.

15. Material processes: distinguishing between Range and Goal
Range (not liable to be impacted or affected; it just expresses the scope of the process)
Goal (impacted/affected)
Cannot be probed by “do to”, “do with”
*What did he do with the tree/mountain?
He climbed it
*What did he do with the piano?
He played it.
Can be probed by “do to”, “do with”
What did he do with the tree?
He put it in one of the corners of the room and decorated it.
What did he do with the piano?
He hatched it.

16. Material processes: distinguishing between Range and Goal
Range (not liable to be impacted or affected; it just expresses the scope of the process)
Goal (impacted/affected)
can be replaced by a PP
“He climbed (up) the tree”
“He played (on) the piano”
“He jumped (over) the fence”
Cannot be replaced by a PP

17. Material processes: distinguishing between Range and Goal
Range (not liable to be impacted or affected; it just expresses the scope of the process)
Goal (impacted/affected)
Not liable to be followed by an Attribute, a Role, a Beneficiary or a Location
followed by an Attribute, a Role, a Beneficiary or a Location that represents the result of the impact
They painted the wall white. They drove the car hot. (Attribute)
Cut the onions into cubes. They broke the window into pieces. (Role: Product)
They kicked the cat down the stairs (Location)
They gave/brought a car to the kid/for the kid (Beneficiary; Client)

18. Material processes: distinguishing between Range and Goal
Range (not liable to be impacted or affected; it just expresses the scope of the process)
Goal (impacted/affected)
Certain material processes with range can be restated by means of a single verb
He took a bath/a shower (= He bathed/showered).
He made a mistake (= he erred).
Not possible for material processes with Goal

19. Nuclear transitivity: different process types described and illustrated in more detail - Mental
Participants
Subtypes
Examples
Reactances
Mental
percep-tion, cogni-tion, affection – inner world – non-observa-ble)
+Senser
+Phenomenon/
+Macrophenomenon (act -perception)
+Metaphenom. (fact - emotion)
+ Metapoheno-menon (idea - cognition)
perception
cognition
affection
-He saw a bird. I saw him cross/crossing the street.
-He knows all the answers. He believes that you are to blame.
-I like/fear him. He pleases/scares me. He regrets the fact that he was unable to help.
-No substitution by any verb
-S Present as unmarked tense in Present
-Bidirec-tional
-Capacity to project

20. Participants in mental processes explained
Senser: an entity endowed with higher or lower consciousness, like a human being and, for some processes, an animal. It can be Subject (I like fruit) or Complement (Fruit appeals to/pleases me);
Phenomenon: a thing (person, object, place, etc.) that can be perceived, known or that can be the object of an emotion of some kind. It is a participant in the mental clause and it is always a Ngp (He saw the animal; he knew the animal; He loves animals);
Macrophenomenon: an event or happening or doing in the material world that can be perceived; only used with processes of perception. It is an embedded clause that is a participant in the mental clause (he saw [[him help the old lady/him helping the old lady]]; he heard [[him shout his name/him shouting his name]]).

21. Participants in mental processes explained
Metaphenomenon: fact: an abstract, non-material, semiotic entity that preexists the emotions it triggers; only used with processes of emotion and an embedded participant element in the clause.
I regretted (the fact) [[that I had not had the courage to speak to her]].
I liked (the fact) [[that she was black]].
[[That she was so young]] surprised me.
Metaphenomenon: idea: abstract but not preexisting the process; rather brought into existence by it. Not really a participant in the clause but a separate clause:
I understood that it was futile.
I knew that it was of no use.

22. Participants in mental processes analyzed
He saw a bird. (perception)
Senser Process Phenomenon
I saw [[him cross/crossing the street]]. (perception)
Senser Process Phenomenon (Macrophenomenon: act - Embedded )
He knows all the answers. (cognition)
Senser Process Phenomenon
He believes || that you are to blame. (cognition)
Senser Process Metaphenomenon (idea – dependent clause)

23. Participants in mental processes analyzed
I like/fear him.
Senser Process Phenomenon
bidirectional
He pleases/scares me.
Phenomenon Process Senser
He regrets (the fact ) [[that he was unable to help]].
Senser Process Phenomenon (metaphenomenon: fact)
[[That he was unable to help]] surprises me.
Phenomenon (metaphenomenon: fact) Process Senser

24. Nuclear transitivity: different process types described and illustrated - Behavioral
Participants
Subtypes
Examples
Reactances
Beha-vioural
(physio-logical, mental and para-verbal beha-viour)
+Behaver
(+Beha-viour)
+ Range
+ Matter
+Target
Physiological
(Para)verbal
Mental behaviour
He slept soundly. He snored/ breathed.
He babbled/ grunted/sang a song. He cried/ laughed/ giggled. They talked about the problem
He pondered/ meditated over the matter. He watched the film. He listened to the news
-No substitution by do.
-Present in Present as unmarked tense in Present
-No projection

25. Participants in behavioral processes explained
Behaver: person or animal having the behavior, usually endowed with consciousness. Most behavioral processes ONLY have a single participant, and that’s the Behaver.
Behavior: found in very few cases in which the behavior usually repeats the behavioural process with some added attribute (he breathed a deep breath; he dreamt a strange dream)
Range: in very few cases in which the the process takes a second participant that is not a behavior and that is different in nature from the process itself: he watched a movie; they observed the stranger; they discussed/debated the problem.

26. Participants in behavioral processes explained
Matter: used with verbal behavioral and mental behavioral processes (They talked about the problem; They reflected/pondered over the problem).
Target: used with verbal behavioral processes expressing insult, offence, criticism (They criticized his manners. He insulted him.) Both “his manners” and “him” in these sentences are the Target of the insult or the criticism.

27. Behavioral processes: a transition category
Behavioral processes are said to be located between material processes, on the one hand, and mental or verbal processes, on the other. This is particularly true of the verbal behavioral and the mental behavioral processes. They are not properly verbal or mental because THEY CANNOT PROJECT and, in the case of mental ones, because THEY INVOLVE VOLITION. So they are more “saying” and “thinking” or “perceiving” as BEHAVIOUR.

28. Behavioral processes: a transition category
Their transitional character can be perceived in the following examples:
He said that he was ill
He thought that he was ill
are properly verbal and mental because they can project (a locution and an idea respectively).
He talked about his illness
He reflected on/over his illness
are not properly verbal or mental because thereis no saying in the first one and no idea being brought into existence in the second one. They are saying and thinking as behaviour.

29. Nuclear transitivity: different process types described and illustrated - Verbal
Participants
Subtypes
Examples
Distinctive features/ Reactances
Verbal
(saying)
+Sayer
+Verbiage /
+Receiver
+Locution (Not a participant in verbal clause)
+ Locution:
Quoting
Reporting
He told (us) a lie/a story.
“I’m tired” he said
He said (to me) he was tired.
-Presence of receiver
-No substitution by “do”
S. Present as unmarked tense in Pr.
-projection

30. Participants in verbal processes explained
Sayer: The person or thing (dictionary, sign, article, newspaper, etc.) that says sth.
Verbiage: the content of what is said, always expressed by a Ngp
Receiver: the adressee; the person to whom sth is said
Processes of saying or verbal processes can project another clause that expresses the content of what was said (locution). It can project it verbatim (quotation) or parapharse it in line with the here and now of the speaker (report). The “locution” IS NOT a Participant in the verbal clause but a separate clause projected by it

31. Participants in verbal processes analyzed
He told (us) a lie/a story.
Sayer Process Verbiage
He said a few words to us.
“I’m tired” he said/answered.
Locution: Quotation Sayer Process
He said (to me) (that) he was tired.
Sayer Process Receiver Locution: Report

32. Nuclear transitivity: different process types described and illustrated - Existential
Participants
Subtypes
Examples
Distinctive features/ Reactances
Existential
(existence)
+Existent
-Existential
-Existential plus (some other meaning)
There are different species of whales. On the sofa (there) was a cat.
Through the window there came the sounds of Sydney.
No substitution by “do”
-S. Present as unmarked tense
-Presence of unstressed there in S position

33. Participants in verbal processes explained
Existent: it is the participant that the process introduces as existing, as having existence.
For some, the non-stressed “there” has no experiential role in the clause. It is just a dummy Subject, a place-holder for Subject. For others, it encodes the process together with “be”. When the clause starts with a Circumsatance it can be omitted. It can be marked together with the verb “be”

34. Participants in verbal processes analyzed
There are different species of whales.
Process Existent
On the sofa (there) was a cat.
Circ. of place Process Existent
Through the window (there) came the sounds of Sydney.
Circ. of place Process Existent

35. Nuclear transitivity: different process types described and illustrated - Relational
Participants
Subtypes
Examples
Distinctive features/ Reactances
Relational
(being and having)
+ Carrier
+ Attribute
+Token
+Value
Attributive
Identifying
She is famous. She is a (famous) scientist. She has blue eyes.
She is the leader. The Aconcagua is the highest peak in America.
Presence of “be” or verbs comparable in meaning.
-No substitution by “do”
-S Present as unmarked tense

36. Relational processes further described
Process type
Participants
Subtypes
Examples
Distinctive features/ Reactances
Relational attributive
(being and having)
Assigning sb to a class
Assigning sb a quality/an attribute
+ Carrier
+Attribute
Intensive
Possessive
Circumstantial
She is famous. She is a (famous) scientist.
She has blue eyes. She has two siblings. She has a car.
She is in high school. New York is in the States.
Attribute realized by adjective, indefinite nominal group or circumstance (PP)
-Carrier and Attribute are non-reversible

37. Relational processes further described
Process type
Participants
Subtypes
Examples
Distinctive features/ Reactances
Relational identifying
(being and having)
Identifying an entity by reference to some other entity
Meanings of symbolization
+Token
+Value
intensive
possessive
circumstantial
America is the beacon of democracy. The Aconca-gua is the highest peak in America.
This is Neil’s.
This belongs to Neil.
The time of the meeting is Friday. The cause of his illness is stress.
-Presence of definite nominal groups
-Reversible

38. Participants in relational processes explained
Carrier: The entity that is assigned to a class (She is a teacher; This is a chair) or that is assigned an attribute or quality (She is tall; This table is long)
Attribute: The class an entity belongs to (She is a teacher; this is a chair) or the quality an entity is assigned (She is tall; This table is long)
Token: The concrete entity that embodies/ represents/ symbolizes a value (Susan is the kindest salesperson in the shop; He is the leader).
Value: A more abstract entity that can be perceived only if represented by a more concrete entity (Susan is the kindest salesperson in the shop; He is the leader).

39. Participants in verbal processes analyzed – Attributive processes
She is famous. (intensive)
Carrier Process Attribute
She is a (famous) scientist. (intensive)
She has blue eyes/a car/two siblings. (possessive)
She is in high school/in the States. (circumstantial)

40. Participants in verbal processes analyzed – Identifying processes
America is the beacon of democracy. (intensive)
Token Process Value
The beacon of democracy is America.
Value Process Token
The Aconcagua is the highest peak in America. (intensive)
Token Process Value
The highest peak in America is the Aconcagua.
Value Process Token

41. Participants in verbal processes analyzed – Identifying processes
This is Neil’s. Neil’s is this. (possessive)
Token Process Value Value Process Token
This belongs to Neil. (possessive)
Token Process Value
The time of the meeting is Friday. (circumstantial)
Value Process Token
The cause for his illness is stress (circumstantial)

42. Reversibility of identifying processes- problems and criteria for identifying Value and Token
More concrete entity
“America” in “America is the beacon of democracy”
Abstract notion, value
“the beacon of democracy” in same clause
Subject in a clause with the verb “represent”
“America represents the beacon of democracy”
Complement in clause with “represent”
See “the beacon of democracy” in other box
Because Identifying processes are reversible, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between Token and Value. There are some criteria/tests we can apply to identify between the two:

43. Transitivity in Functional Grammar – its relation to context and meaning
Lexico-grammatical (systems)
Field (what the text is about)
Experiential (meaning about the world or worlds perceived or imagined)
TRANSITIVITY
Tenor (the relationship between the interactants)
Interpersonal (meaning about the relationship between interactants)
MOOD
Mode (whether the text is spoken or written)
Textual (meaning about the text we construct in interaction)
THEME-RHEME

44. Where is transitivity to be placed in the model of language
Where is transitivity to be placed in the model of language? In which level or stratum?

45. Causation and Different Process types
Causation + Material
The devil made me do it.
I got the kids to tidy up their room.

46. Causation and Different Process types
Causation + Material
Actor
The devil made me do it
Initiator Material Goal
I got the kids to tidy up their room
Initiator Material Goal

47. Causation and Different Process types
Causation + Mental/Verbal
She made me rethink my attitude
You make me say things I don’t mean to

48. Causation and Different Process types
Causation + Mental/Verbal
Senser
She made me rethink my attitude
Inducer Mental Phenomenon
Sayer
You make me say things I don’t mean to
Inducer Verbal Verbiage

49. Causation and Different Process types
Causation + Relational
She drives me crazy.
They consider him lazy.
They call me Bruce.
They made him their leader

50. Causation and Different Process types
Causation + Relational
She drives me crazy.
Attributor Process Carrier Attribute
They consider him lazy.
They call me Bruce.
Assigner Process Value Token
They made him their leader
Assigner Process Token Value

51. Differences between this and the traditional approach to verbs
Concern with meaning and with form only as a consequence of meaning
Concern with text (interested in establishing patterns of transitivity in text)
Concern with purpose (interested in explaining patterns in terms of purpose, or author’s intention or meanings being made in text)