1. Work Tests to Evaluate Performance

2. Objectives
Discuss the factors that determine the effectiveness of a physiological test of athletic performance.
Define “specificity of VO2 max.”
Explain the difference between VO2 max and VO2 peak.
Discuss the physiological rationale for the assessment of the lactate threshold in the endurance athlete.
Describe methods for the assessment of anaerobic power.
Discuss the techniques used to evaluate strength.

3. Outline Determination of Anaerobic Power
Tests of Ultra Short-Term Maximal Anaerobic Power
Tests of Short-Term Anaerobic Power
Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Criteria for Selection of a Strength-Testing Method
Isometric Measurement of Strength
Free-Weight Measurement of Strength
Isokinetic Assessment of Strength
Variable-Resistance Measurement of Strength
Laboratory Assessment of Physical Performance
Physiological Testing: Theory and Ethics
What the Athlete Gains by Physiological Testing
What Physiological Testing Will Not Do
Components of Effective Physiological Testing
Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
Specificity of Testing
Exercise Test Protocol
Determination of Peak VO2 in Paraplegic Athletes
Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Use of the Lactate Threshold to Evaluate Performance
Measurement of Critical Power
Tests to Determine Exercise Economy
Estimating Success in Distance Running Using the Lactate Threshold and Running Economy

4. Physiological Testing: Theory and Ethics
Laboratory Assessment of Physical Performance
Physiological Testing: Theory and Ethics
Physical performance is determined by:
Capacity for maximal energy output
Aerobic and anaerobic
Muscular strength
Coordination/economy of movement
Psychological factors
Motivation and tactics
Laboratory test should stress the same physiological systems required by sport or event
Athletes should volunteer for testing

5. Factors That Contribute to Physical Performance
Laboratory Assessment of Physical Performance
Factors That Contribute to Physical Performance
Figure 20.1

6. What the Athlete Gains From Physiological Testing
Information regarding strengths and weaknesses
Can serve as baseline data to plan training programs
Feedback regarding effectiveness of training program
Education about the physiology of exercise

7. What Physiological Testing Will Not Do
Difficult to simulate sports in laboratory
Physiological and psychological demands
Difficult to predict performance from single battery of tests
Performance in the field is the ultimate test of athletic success

8. Components of Effective Physiological Testing
Physiological variables tested should be relevant to the sport
Tests should be valid and reliable
Tests should be sport-specific
Tests should be repeated at regular intervals
Testing procedures should be carefully controlled
Test results should be interpreted to the coach and athlete

9. Components of Effective Physiological Testing
In Summary
Designing laboratory tests to assess physical performance requires an understanding of those factors that contribute to success in a particular sport.
Physical performance is determined by the interaction of the following factors: (a) maximal energy output, (b) muscular strength, (c) coordination/economy of movement, and (d) psychological factors such as motivation and tactics.
In order to be effective, physiological tests should be: (a) relevant to the sport; (b) valid and reliable; (c) sport specific; (d) repeated at regular intervals; (e) standardized, and (f) interpreted to the coach and athlete.

10. Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
VO2 max is considered the best test for predicting success in endurance events
Other factors are also important
Better predictor in heterogeneous groups
Most accurate means of measurement is direct testing in laboratory
Open-circuit spirometry
Specificity of testing
Should be specific to athlete’s sport
Runners tested on treadmill

11. Exercise Test Protocol
Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
Exercise Test Protocol
Should use large muscle groups
Optimal test length 10–12 minutes
Start with 3–5 minute warm-up
Increase work rate to near maximal load
Increase load stepwise every 1–4 minutes until subject cannot maintain desired work rate
Criteria for VO2 max
Plateau in VO2 with increasing work rate
Rarely observed in incremental tests
Blood lactate concentration of >8 mmoles•L–1
Respiratory exchange ratio 1.15
HR in last stage 10 beats•min–1 of HRmax

12. Determining VO2 Max Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
Figure 20.1

13. Determination of Peak VO2 in Paraplegic Athletes
Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
Determination of Peak VO2 in Paraplegic Athletes
Paraplegic athletes can be tested using arm exercise
Arm ergometers
Wheelchair ergometers
Highest VO2 measured during arm exercise is not considered VO2 max
Called “peak VO2”
Higher peak VO2 using accelerated protocol
Test starts at 50–60% of peak VO2
Limits muscular fatigue early in test

14. Direct Testing of Maximal Aerobic Power
In Summary
The measurement of VO2 max requires the use of large muscle groups and should be specific to the movement required by the athlete in his or her event or sport.
A VO2 max test can be judged to be valid if two of the following criteria are met: (a) respiratory exchange ratio >1.15, (b) HR during the last test stage that is ±10 beats per minute within the predicted HRmax, and/or (c) plateau in VO2 with an increase in work rate.
Arm crank ergometry and wheelchair ergometry have been used to determine the peak VO2 in paraplegic athletes.

15. Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Peak running velocity
Highest speed that can be maintained for >5 sec
Lactate threshold
Exercise intensity at which blood lactic acid begins to systematically increase
Direct measurement
Estimation by ventilatory threshold
Critical power
Speed at which running speed/time curve reaches plateau

16. Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Research Focus 20.1 Measurement of Peak Running Velocity to Predict Performance
Peak running velocity
Tested on treadmill or on track
Progressively increasing speed on treadmill
Highest speed that can be maintained for >5 sec
Excellent predictor of 5 km run performance
Strong correlation
r = –0.97
Also a good predictor of 10–90 km race performance

17. Relationship Between Peak Running Velocity and 5-km Race Performance
Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Relationship Between Peak Running Velocity and 5-km Race Performance
Figure 20.3

18. Use of the Lactate Threshold to Evaluate Performance
Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Use of the Lactate Threshold to Evaluate Performance
Lactate threshold estimates maximal steady-state running speed
Predictor of success in distance running events
Direct determination of lactate threshold (LT)
2–5 minute warm-up
Stepwise increases in work rate every 1–3 minutes
Measure blood lactate at each work rate
LT is the breakpoint in the lactate/VO2 graph
Prediction of the LT by ventilatory alterations
Ventilatory threshold (Tvent)
Point at which there is a sudden increase in ventilation
Used as an estimate of LT

19. Lactate Threshold Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Figure 20.4

20. Ventilatory Threshold
Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Ventilatory Threshold
Figure 20.5

21. Measurement of Critical Power
Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Measurement of Critical Power
Critical power
Running speed at which running speed/time curve reaches a plateau
Power output that can be maintained indefinitely
However, most athletes fatigue in 30–60 min when exercising at critical power
Measurement of critical power
Subjects perform series of timed exercise trials to exhaustion
Prediction of performance in events lasting 3–100 minutes
Highly correlated with high VO2 max and LT

22. Concept of Critical Power
Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
Concept of Critical Power
Figure 20.6

23. Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
In Summary
Common laboratory tests to predict endurance performance include measurement of the lactate threshold, critical power, and peak running velocity. All of these measurements have been proven useful in predicting performance in endurance events.
The lactate threshold can be determined during an incremental exercise test using any one of several exercise modalities (e.g., treadmill, cycle ergometer, etc.). The lactate threshold represents an exercise intensity at which blood lactic acid levels begin to systematically increase.

24. Laboratory Tests to Predict Endurance Performance
In Summary
Critical power is defined as the running speed (i.e., power output) at which the running speed/time curve reaches a plateau.
Peak running velocity (meters•second–1) can be determined on a treadmill or track and is defined as the highest speed that can be maintained for more than five seconds.

25. Tests to Determine Exercise Economy
Higher economy means that less energy is expended to maintain a given speed
Runner with higher running economy should defeat a less economical runner in a race
Measurement of the oxygen cost of running at various speeds
Plot oxygen requirement as a function of running speed
Greater running economy reflected in lower oxygen cost

26. The Oxygen Cost of Running for Two Subjects
Tests to Determine Exercise Economy
The Oxygen Cost of Running for Two Subjects
Figure 20.7

27. Estimating Distance Running Success Using LT and Running Economy
Close relationship between LT and maximal pace in 10,000 m race
Race pace at 5 m•min–1 above LT
Predicting performance in a 10,000-m race
Measure VO2 max
Plot VO2 vs. running speed
Determine lactate threshold
Plot blood lactate vs. VO2
VO2 at LT = 40 ml•kg–1•min–1
VO2 of 40 ml•kg–1•min–1 = running speed of 200 m•min–1
Estimated 10,000 m running time
10,000m  205 m•min–1 = min

28. Running Economy and LT Results from Incremental Exercise Test
Estimating Distance Running Success
Running Economy and LT Results from Incremental Exercise Test
Figure 20.8

29. Estimating Distance Running Success
In Summary
Success in an endurance event can be predicted by a laboratory assessment of the athlete’s movement economy, VO2 max, and lactate threshold. These parameters can be used to determine the maximal race pace that an athlete can maintain for a given racing distance.

30. Determination of Maximal Anaerobic Power
Determination of Anaerobic Power
Determination of Maximal Anaerobic Power
Testing should involve energy pathways used in the event
Ultra short-term tests
ATP-PC system
Short-term tests
Anaerobic glycolysis

31. Energy System Contribution During Maximal Exercise
Determination of Anaerobic Power
Energy System Contribution During Maximal Exercise
Figure 20.9

32. Tests of Ultra Short-Term Anaerobic Power
Determination of Anaerobic Power
Tests of Ultra Short-Term Anaerobic Power
Tests ATP-PC system
Power tests
Jumping power tests
Running power tests
American football
Series of 40-yard dashes with brief recovery between
Soccer
Intermittent shuttle tests
Cycling power tests
Quebec 10-second test

33. Series of 40-yard Dashes to Test Anaerobic Power
Determination of Anaerobic Power
Series of 40-yard Dashes to Test Anaerobic Power
Figure 20.10

34. Classification of Football Players Based on 40-Yard Dash Times
Determination of Anaerobic Power
Classification of Football Players Based on 40-Yard Dash Times

35. Tests of Short-Term Anaerobic Power
Determination of Anaerobic Power
Tests of Short-Term Anaerobic Power
Tests anaerobic glycolysis
Cycling tests
Wingate test
Subject pedals as rapidly as possible for 30 seconds against predetermined load (based on body weight)
Peak power indicative of ATP-PC system
Percentage of peak power decline is an index of ATP-PC system and glycolysis
Running tests
Maximal runs of 200–800 m
Sport-specific tests

36. Resistance Setting for Wingate Test
Determination of Anaerobic Power
Resistance Setting for Wingate Test

37. Determination of Anaerobic Power
In Summary
Anaerobic power tests are classified as: (a) ultra short-term tests to determine the maximal capacity of the ATP-PC system and (b) short-term tests to evaluate the maximal capacity for anaerobic glycolysis.
Ultra short-tem and short-term power tests should be sport-specific in an effort to provide the athlete and coach with feedback about the athlete’s current fitness level.

38. Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Maximal force that can be generated by a muscle or muscle group
Assessed by:
Isometric measurement
Static force of muscle using tensiometer
Free weight testing
Weight (dumbbell or barbell) remains constant
1 RM lift, handgrip dynamometer
Isokinetic measurement
Variable resistance at constant speed
Variable resistance devices
Variable resistance over range of motion

39. Measurement of Maximal Isometric Force During Knee Extension
Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Measurement of Maximal Isometric Force During Knee Extension
Figure 20.11

40. Handgrip Dynamometer to Assess Grip Strength
Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Handgrip Dynamometer to Assess Grip Strength
Figure 20.12

41. Isokinetic Assessment of Knee Extension
Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Isokinetic Assessment of Knee Extension
Figure 20.13

42. Printout From Isokinetic Dynamometer During a Knee Extension
Evaluation of Muscular Strength
Printout From Isokinetic Dynamometer During a Knee Extension
Figure 20.14

43. Evaluation of Muscular Strength
In Summary
Muscular strength is defined as the maximum force that can be generated by a muscle group.
Evaluation of muscular strength is useful in assessing training programs for athletes involved in power sports or events.
Muscular strength can be evaluated using any one of the following techniques: (a) isometric, (b) free-weight testing, (c) isokinetic, or (d) variable-resistance devices.

44. Study Questions
Discuss the rationale behind laboratory tests designed to assess physical performance in athletes. How do these tests differ from general physical fitness tests?
Define maximal oxygen uptake. Why might relative VO2 max be the single most important factor in predicting distance running success in a heterogeneous group of runners?
Discuss the concept of “specificity of testing” for the determination of VO2 max. Give a brief overview of the design of an incremental test to determine VO2 max. What criteria can be used to determine the validity of a VO2 max test?
Briefly, explain the technique employed to determine the lactate threshold and the ventilatory threshold.
Describe how the economy of running might be evaluated in the laboratory.

45. Study Questions
Discuss the theory and procedures involved in predicting success in distance running.
Explain how short-term maximal anaerobic power can be evaluated by field tests.
Describe how the Wingate test is used to assess medium-term anaerobic power.
Provide an overview of the 1-RM technique to evaluate muscular strength. Why might a computer-assisted dynamometer be superior to the 1-RM technique in assessing strength changes?
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the following types of strength measurement: (1) isometric, (2) free weights, (3) isokinetic, and (4) variable resistance.