1. Subject - Information Systems in Organisations
Course - DT249/1
Subject - Information Systems in Organisations
Semester 1, Week 4
MODELLING INFORMATION SYSTEMS CONCEPTS

2. Textbooks?
The Laudon and Laudon book, ‘Management Information Systems’ (Seventh Edition) –
Chapters 1 (1.1),
2 (2.1) and
10 (10.3 and 10.4)

3. Concepts – What Concepts?
There are many concepts (hundreds?) related to Information Systems and Information Technology.
In this subject we are working in the context of Management Information Systems – so I have kept that in mind when rounding up the concepts ‘that matter’.

4. Concepts – What Concepts? (2)
Concepts such as:
Data
Information
Knowledge
Information Systems
Information Technology
Stakeholders (People)
Informatics
Analysis
Design

5. Concepts – What Concepts? (3)
From Information Systems, Information Technology and Analysis and Design come other concepts:
Information System Types (IS)
Information Technology Infrastructure (IT)
E-business (Electronic Business (E-Commerce)) (IT)
Life Cycle (Analysis and Design)

6. Management of these Concepts
This lecture session looks at the concepts mentioned and goes on to consider the management implications of/for these concepts and the ideas on which they are based.
Trying not to repeat myself on points made in last week’s lecture, let us return to what information systems are…

7. Data, Information and Knowledge
A concept of what information systems are;
Information systems are concerned with providing information to support people (e.g. end users) taking actions (such as the tasks of their job).
(End users: very often these are the organisation’s employees.)

8. Data
A datum is one symbol that is used to represent something. (Collectively, data are symbols – the plural of ‘datum’.)
So data are facts about the world – but only some are significant or of interest to people. (e.g. user requirements).
Within the great mass of facts in the world, the sub-set of facts that one might select for attention are called ‘capta’ properly.
The capta might be stored in a computer system for specific purposes. (Example; a database.)
In the Information Systems context, data (or capta) are the raw inputs of Information Systems; facts of some interest to the information systems users.

9. Information
Information is processed, or value-added data - or data interpreted in some meaningful context.
You cannot have information without people (observers) with interest in its data content and some sort of context in which it is placed. (This is “meaning attribution”.)
The attribution of meaning in a context converts data into something different, i.e. information.
Information has a temporal dimension - what might be meaningful at one point in time may be completely irrelevant at another time.
What might be information to one person may not be to another – these people may have different interests at different times.

10. Knowledge
The process by which data is converted into meaningful information can lead to larger structures of related information.
These larger, longer-living structures might be viewed as knowledge.
These larger structures are often integrated with existing knowledge to create an improved knowledge within that context.
Knowledge can also be thought of as being an understanding of what the information means or implies.
Knowledge: accurate information that has been incorporated into our way of understanding the world around us. It is the sense we make of the world. It helps us decide on action when we want to have an effect on the world. (Info System example; Decision Support System.)

11. Data, Information and Knowledge (2)

12. Information Systems
An Information System allows for the collection, processing, storage, analyses and dissemination of information for a specific purpose.
It is possible for an organisation to have an Information System free of any computer-based system.

13. Information Systems (2)
Computer-based Information System (CBIS); an Information System that uses computer technology to perform some or all of its intended tasks.
Many (textbook) definitions of an Information System describe a system of hardware and software only. The data and purpose (or usage) come outside this definition.

14. Information Technology
Information Technology deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and retrieve information. (As defined by Wikipedia).

15. Information Systems and Information Technology
A bit of a paradox…
Information Systems are distinct from Information Technology (IT) systems, with IT systems being ‘component elements’ of most modern Information Systems.
An Information Technology system has data as input, manipulates such data as a process and outputs manipulated data.
IT provides the means to construct aspects of information systems;
IT includes computer software, hardware, data storage and communication technology.
Information Systems have existed in organisations prior to the invention of IT, so information systems do not need modern IT to exist - but modern Information Systems rely on IT to some degree.

16. Information Systems & Information Technology (2)
In principle you could think of the fundamentals of Information Systems without reference to the technology used in actual systems – but it is now necessary to think of Information Systems in relation to IT.
The rapidly changing technology offers the possibility for new kinds of Information Systems well beyond the capability of earlier technology. (Technology progresses Information Systems.)
This, in an organisation, makes possible new activities, new ways of doing information-reliant work and allows managers to think differently about opportunities - none of which would have been possible without new technologies.

17. Information Systems & Information Technology (3)
Many IT professionals assume Information Systems and IT are much the same thing.
BUT
just as Information Systems cannot ignore IT, so work using IT needs to be done in relation to the human and social context.
This essentially means that IT work needs to be interactive, with business analysts (and/or systems analysts) and users. This is a strong rationale for modern user centred design approaches. (More on these points later.) 

18. Information Systems mediate between Technology and Organisations
IT - IS - Organisations
Information Systems mediate between Technology and Organisations IS IT
Organisations
This is a GLOBAL perspective
A DeMontford University diagram

19. IT - IS – Organisations (2)
Information Systems mediate between Technology and Organisations (but Organisations have the main ownership) IT IS
Organisations
This is an INDIVIDUAL ORGANISATION perspective

20. What are Information Systems For?
One view of what information systems are for is that they fulfil the following basic functions:
Remembering the past – keeping historical data, as a record of what has happened and for facilitating various analysis.
Handling the present – recording various transaction and automating various processes.
Preparing for the future – providing information to facilitate various decision-making and planning processes.
…since information is temporal.

21. Information Systems as Mediators
Another view of what information systems are for is that they mediate between data and the user:
The data is entered into the system, possibly processed, often recorded and often output at a later stage.
The mediation – where the system ‘stands between’ the data and the user who uses them – requires clear analysis and accurate design to produce hardware/software systems that are effective and desirable. (More on that later.)

22. Stakeholders
The group of people to which an Information System is relevant is the group of the users of the system, but other groups may be involved in an Information System.
People with an interest in an Information System are referred to as ‘stakeholders’.

23. Stakeholders (2)
The more common stakeholders for an Information System might include:
Users – there are usually multiple users and/or user groups, often with different interests
Clients of the system – e.g. customers are clients of a banking system
User management and system ‘owners’
System developers
System administrators and user support
Other technical support people such as database administrators, network managers, systems security, etcetera.
Computer auditors
Information System managers

24. Informatics
Informatics is the field that considers the nature of information (in its various forms including data and articulated knowledge).
Informatics examines the use of information by humans to achieve various ends; the technologies of its management
how it is created, stored, processed, communicated and mobilised,
the issues it raises
validity, privacy, security and protocol
and the repercussions of information for people, organisations and society.

25. Informatics (2)
Applied Informatics examines the above topics in relation to a particular knowledge domain. Example; Health Informatics examines topics from a doctor (GP) looking after patient records, all the way through to Expert Systems (at the complex end of things) for diagnosis, also, perhaps, remote medicine… to medical research.
Another term, ‘organisational informatics’ encompasses the application of information, Information Systems and IT within organisations.

26. Analysis Business Analysis Systems Analysis Any other analyses?
Reminder for them –
They should remember from systems theory etc…
Student version does not have the answers

27. What is Analysis?
Analysis is, perhaps, the breaking down of problems into chunks small enough to be solved easily.
In Information Systems development; to understand and model complex situations.
(A lot of modelling comes up in Management Information Systems - the subject.)
Reminder for them –
They should remember from systems theory etc…
Student version does not have the answers

28. Business Analysis
Business analysts bridge the gap between the various stakeholders to accurately define project requirements and carefully control the scope.
(The scope of a project – how much of the organisation is under analysis, how long will it take…? You might view the scope as setting the boundaries of a project. )
The business analyst is skilled at working with end-users to determine what their task needs are.
The business analyst has some technical experience which is useful in determining if a user's requests are feasible – but, really, their perspective is mainly that of the organisation.
/…continued

29. Business Analysis (2)
The business analyst is also responsible for ‘drilling down’ into each business requirement to ensure that what is being asked is actually what is needed.
It is also the business analyst’s role to translate what the user is asking for into a technical form that the client/server programmer or web developer can understand.
The analyst is proactive in identifying potential projects which may help to improve the business.
The business analysts have a role to understand the organisation and its processes, and know about the direction of the organisation -at the same time, understanding Information Systems and IT issues sufficiently to be able to define requirements and to offer potential solutions to end users.

30. Systems Analysis
Systems analysts bridge the gap between the various stakeholders to accurately define technical requirements and define the Information Systems scope.
The systems analyst is skilled at working with end-users to determine what their computational needs are.
The systems analyst has some organisational experience which is useful in determining if a user's requests are feasible – but, really, their perspective is mainly that of the technology.

31. What a Systems Analyst Does
Conducts feasibility studies (with alternatives)
Liaises with users and determines requirements
Finds out facts important to the design of the proposed system
Determines human and computer procedures that will make up the new system
Designs data storage (files) and interfaces
Writes program specifications
Tests programs and systems
Designs implementation procedures
Documents the system
Plans, monitors and controls the systems development
Reviews how successful the project was
Oversees the maintenance of the system

32. Systems Analyst Skills
Systems Thinking – the analyst must
understand systems concepts
be able to apply systems thinking to Information Systems
Organisational Knowledge – the analyst must
be able to identify processes / internal politics
be able to negotiate the competitive and regulative environment / strategies and tactics
The analyst must be good at problem Identification, problem/situation analysis and problem solving.
The two Systems Analysis Skills slides are presented for students reference :
They can be skipped through – point them to the text book

33. Systems Analyst Skills (2)
Technical Skills -
understanding hardware / software
be willing to become involved in publications / professional societies / courses and conferences
Management Skills -
have some capability in resource management / project management – as well as
risk management / change management / people management
Interpersonal Skills – analysts must
have communication skills / working alone and in teams
be able to facilitate groups / manage expectations

34. Specialist Skills
IT Systems Analysts used to do all these tasks but computing is getter ever more complex. It is beyond the capability of one person…
So specialisms have emerged and systems analysts may opt to work in specific areas such as;
Business Analysis
Data Analysis
Networking
Communications … World-Wide Web (WWW) … etcetera.
Important to stress that it is now impossible for one person to have all the necessary skills
Systems are getting more complex,
Business .. Computers.. Communication ..
Refer to computer weekly etc for them to see the variety of skills required.
One of the key modern trends is the separation of Business requirements, i.e. Business Analyst
The general analyst is now often a project manager, coordinating specialist skills

35. The Role of the Systems Analyst
Facilitator
Communicator
1) Meetings - planning; walkthroughs etc.
2) Dealing with users / managers / vendors / development team members etc.
3) Presentations - users / managers / development team members etc.
- training
4) Designing building blocks of the system / putting blocks together to form
the system - technology & supporting clerical systems & people
5) Achieving goals - successful release of an Information System
Achiever
… plus many more…

36. Role On… Rules for roles of Systems Analysis
Do not assume that a computer system is the solution
“Computerising a bad system gets you into trouble faster”
Analysts do not decide the best solution
The client must decide from options given
The underlying business process must be sustainable
Perhaps the most important slide in this lecture
The naive/inexperienced user WANTS the analyst to make the decision for them
The client MUST BE THE PROJECT OWNER if the analyst chooses there is huge potential for systems failure
The analyst is often the bearer of bad news, how do you tell someone that their basic processes are hopeless?

37. Analysis and Design
Analysis is the problem solving stage
Systems
Investigation
Analysis
Design
Implementation
Review &
Maintenance
Feasibility
Study
Project Selection
Design is building upon the analysis to develop the selected solution

38. Design
“Stating how a system will be constructed without actually building it.” (Rumbaugh)
A construction industry corollary;
Sketch plans
Outline
Detail
Written Specifications ….THEN
Actual construction
For Information Systems, that would be a good idea!
Construction industry is a good example – NEVER JUST START BUILDING
Ie “Hacking it”
So why do so many programmers start this way?
Pre meditated actions, progressively considering detail
To (try and) ensure successful outcome.

39. When to Design? Alongside construction (e.g. Just In Time?)
Alongside Analysis (finding solutions to problems as we go along – often only in outline)?
After the analysis stage (e.g. detailed design)?
Or both – as in rapid development (RAD – Rapid Application Development – or prototyping).
Modern trend towards concurrent engineering
Useful to white board these in chart/diagram form
Ie design just enough in front to enable production (programming) to start
Can be high risk, but much faster development time
Rapid Application, Analyse a bit, design a bit, build a bit … iterations
Will depend on life cycle model being followed
Importance of independence of design (logical) for portability and extended system life – can be easily implemented on a new (perhaps as yet unknown) platform.
But tends to slow development down, as it is an interim stage. Much used with Structured Systems Methodologies.

40. When to Design? (2)
By the way, there is usually a distinction between ‘Logical Design’ and ‘Physical Design’.
Why?
There is an independence of the physical implementation. This works best with databases because it is easier to control and monitor problems/changes with the data if it is documented in a logical design. You can apply solutions/changes to the physical database system.
Modern trend towards concurrent engineering
Useful to white board these in chart/diagram form
Ie design just enough in front to enable production (programming) to start
Can be high risk, but much faster development time
Rapid Application, Analyse a bit, design a bit, build a bit … iterations
Will depend on life cycle model being followed
Importance of independence of design (logical) for portability and extended system life – can be easily implemented on a new (perhaps as yet unknown) platform.
But tends to slow development down, as it is an interim stage. Much used with Structured Systems Methodologies.

41. Emergent Concepts – Information Systems
Within Information Systems there are concepts such as:
Hardware is a device such as a processor, monitor, keyboard or printer
Software is a program or collection of programs that enable hardware to process data.
Database is a collection of related files or tables containing data.

42. Emergent Concepts – Information Systems (2)
Network is a connecting system (wireline or wireless) that permits different computers to share resources.
Procedures are the set of instructions about how to combine the above components in order to process information and generate the desired output.
People are those individuals who use the hardware and software, interface with it, or use its output. (Remember the stakeholders..?)

43. Emergent Concepts – Information Systems (3)
Types of Information Systems – systems that support specific functional areas and operations include:
Functional Area Information System
Transaction Processing System (TPS)
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) System
Interorganisational Information System
Electronic Commerce Systems

44. Emergent Concepts – Information Systems (4)
Types of Information Systems – examples;
Office Automation System (OAS)
Management Information System (MIS)
Decision Support System (DSS)
Expert System (ES)
Executive Information System (EIS)
Yes… some of these mentioned in the last few weeks…

45. Emergent Concepts – Information Technology
Information Technology Architecture.
A high-level map or plan of the information assets in an organisation, which guides current operations and is a blueprint for future directions.

46. Emergent Concepts – Information Technology (2)
Information Technology Infrastructure.
The physical facilities, IT components, IT services and IT management that support an entire organisation.

47. Emergent Concepts – Systems Analysis
Slide 37 showed the ‘Waterfall Model’ of Systems Analysis – it is, essentially, a Life Cycle.
It began with ‘Project Selection’ but this could also be termed, ‘Fact Finding’ with variant stages (or phases) thereafter – up until the design phase.

48. Emergent Concepts – Systems Analysis (2)
So, for example, Requirements Modelling comes immediately after Fact-Finding logically.
Practically speaking, it is impossible to separate the two.
Analysts generally model as they go along so the Design phase might be reached via this model.

49. Emergent Concepts – Systems Analysis (3)
The immediate next step is Requirements Analysis.
After that, we move into Design
Only when we fully understand the problem, can we develop a complete solution.
(In practice, developers often begin designing parts of the solution much earlier)… Anyway, a Life Cycle emerges.

50. Emergent Concepts – Systems Analysis (4)
Fact-Finding + Requirements Modelling + Requirements Analysis = the entire Systems Analysis activity.
For a strictly waterfall lifecycle:
Fact-Finding
Modelling
Analysis

51. Emergent Concepts – Systems Analysis (5)
As an iterative (repeated, looped) activity (common even within a Waterfall Life Cycle)
Requirements Modelling
Model what you learned
Learn a bit about the problem
Fact-finding
Analyse its structure and implications
Requirements Analysis

52. Emergent Concepts – Systems Analysis (6)
Example of a fully iterative Life Cycle:
Analyse the model
Model the facts
Learn some facts
Review what was learnt
Test what you built
Build a bit of solution
Design a bit of solution

53. Information Systems Concepts and Management
The Life Cycle is very often an a representation of the analysis of organisational structure, information flow and the needs of users to establish a specification of Information Systems resources.
The terms for the resources will match many of the concepts mentioned in this lecture.

54. IS Concepts and Management (2)
Which IT resources are managed and by whom?
Generally, computing resources are located through the organisation and, typically, many employees use computers in their work (as end-users).
This system is known as ‘end user computing’.
It is certainly the format for knowledge workers – people who work with (produce?) information as a main part of their job.

55. IS Concepts and Management (3)
The major categories of information resources are hardware, software, databases, networks, procedures, security facilities and physical buildings.
Business and systems analysts will help bridge the gap between these resources and the people who need them.
Management could be global to these resources – as in the case of a managed department.

56. Information Systems Department
The role of an IS department
Typically, the Information Systems (or IT) Department is responsible for corporate-level and shared resources and for using IT to help end users’ match their task and technology requirements.
End users are responsible for their own computing resources and departmental resources.
The department and end users work together as partners to manage the IT resources.

57. Information Systems Department (2)
In many cases the IS Department has changed from a purely technical support role to a more managerial and strategic one.
The role of the director of an IS department has changed from a technical manager to a senior executive. She/he spends more time negotiating with end users about their technology ‘wants’ than the traditional times of telling users what technologies they must accept and learn to use.

58. Traditional Major IS Functions
Managing systems development and systems project management.
Managing computer operations, including the computer centre (the IS or IT Department).
Staffing, training and developing IS skills.
Provide technical services.
Infrastructure planning, development and control.

59. New (Consultative) IS Functions
Initiating and designing specific strategic IS.
Incorporating the Internet and e- commerce into the business.
Managing system integration including the Internet, intranets and extranets.
Educating the non-IS managers about IT.
Educating the IS staff about the business.

60. New IS Functions (2) Supporting end user computing.
Partnering with the organisation’s executives.
Managing outsourcing (where it is used).
Proactively using business and technical knowledge to propose innovative ideas about IT.
Creating business alliances with vendors and IS departments in other organisations.

61. Summary
There are many, many concepts for information systems and Information Technology.
Some of these concepts have more concepts within them.
Management of Information Systems means management of these concepts in relation to how they fit into people’s tasks.

62. What Next?
Next Week:
Modern Information Systems Applications