1. OB_UG_2002 GSM1 Individual Differences in Organizations Hui WANG Guanghua School of Management Peking University Email: wanghui@gsm.pku.edu.cn Tel: 62753645 25 Sep. 2002

2. OB_UG_2002 GSM2 Questions for Today What are key demographic characteristics? What are the two types of ability? What are the factors that determine an individual ’ s personality? How do learning theories provide insights into changing behavior? What are the differences between the four schedules of reinforcement? What is the role of punishment in learning

3. OB_UG_2002 GSM3 Demographic Characteristics MaritalStatus Gender Tenure Age

4. OB_UG_2002 GSM4 Types of Ability What is “ Ability ” ? An individual ’ s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Intellectual Abilities That required to do mental activities (e.g., number aptitude, verbal comprehension, memory, reasoning, spatial visualization). Physical Abilities That required to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics. The Ability - Job Fit Employee performance and job satisfaction are enhanced when there is a high ability - job fit

5. OB_UG_2002 GSM5 Types of Ability Intellectual Ability Verbal Ability Numerical Ability Reasoning Ability Deductive Ability Memory Spatial Ability Perceptual Ability Physical Ability Motor Skills (e.g. reaction time, dexterity) Physical Skills (e.g. strength, endurance)

6. OB_UG_2002 GSM6 Nature and Nurture: The Determinants of Intellectual and Physical Abilities

7. OB_UG_2002 GSM7 Managing Ability in Organizations: Ability-Job Fit using Human Resource Management Selection Placement Training Rewards

8. OB_UG_2002 GSM8 Personality Differences among Individuals The term personality is used to represent the overall profile or combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts and interacts with others. Tend to be fairly stable over time

9. OB_UG_2002 GSM9 What Determines Personality? Heredity (nature) Environment (nurture) Situation (high constrained vs low constrained)

10. OB_UG_2002 GSM10 Personality Tests Personality tests are used for selection training workers for team work career development

11. OB_UG_2002 GSM11 The Big Five Model Extraversion - sociable, talkative and assertive. Agreeableness - good-natured, cooperative and trusting. Conscientiousness - responsible, dependable, persistent and achievement oriented. Emotional stability - calm, enthusiastic, secure (positive) Openness to experience - imaginativeness, artistic sensitivity and intellectualism.

12. OB_UG_2002 GSM12 Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB Locus of Control - the degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate. (internal vs external) Machiavellianism - pragmatic, emotional distance, ends justify means. Self-Esteem - liking or disliking of themselves. Self-Monitoring - adjust behavior to external, situational factors. Risk-Taking Type A Personality Type B Personality

13. OB_UG_2002 GSM13 Type A and Type B Type A Personality Always moving, walking, and eating rapidly Feel impatient with the rate Strive to think or do two or more things at once Cannot cope with leisure time Obsessed with numbers

14. OB_UG_2002 GSM14 Type A and Type B (cont..) Type B Personality Never suffer from a sense of time urgency Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments Play for fun and relaxation Can relax without guilt

15. OB_UG_2002 GSM15 Holland ’ s Typology of Occupational Personality Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

16. OB_UG_2002 GSM16 Learning: A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience.

17. OB_UG_2002 GSM17 Three Types of Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Social Learning

18. OB_UG_2002 GSM18 Classical Conditioning Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes the connection between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus. i.e. the learner responds to a stimulus that would not ordinarily produce a response.

19. OB_UG_2002 GSM19 Operant Conditioning Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes the connection between a behavior and its consequences.

20. OB_UG_2002 GSM20 Operant Conditioning Keys Antecedents: Anything that tells workers about desired and undesired behaviors and their consequences. Behaviors: Desirable organizational behaviors and undesirable organizational behaviors.

21. OB_UG_2002 GSM21 Operant Conditioning Keys Consequences of Behavior: Include positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement for desirable organizational behaviors; and extinction and punishment for undesirable organizational behaviors.

22. OB_UG_2002 GSM22 Consequences of Behavior Positive Reinforcement: Administering positive consequences to workers who perform the desired behavior. Negative Reinforcement: Removing negative consequences to workers who perform the desired behavior.

23. OB_UG_2002 GSM23 Consequences of Behavior Extinction: Removing whatever is currently reinforcing the undesirable behavior. Punishment: Administering negative consequences to workers who perform the undesirable behavior.

24. OB_UG_2002 GSM24 Operant Conditioning

25. OB_UG_2002 GSM25 Shaping: The reinforcement of successive and closer approximations to a desired behavior.

26. OB_UG_2002 GSM26 Reinforcement Strategies: When Immediate Reinforcement or Delayed Reinforcement

27. OB_UG_2002 GSM27 Reinforcement Strategies: How Often Continuous Reinforcement or Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

28. OB_UG_2002 GSM28 Reinforcement Schedules ( for Intermittent Reinforcement) Fixed-Interval Schedule Variable-Interval Schedule Fixed-Ratio Schedule Variable-Ratio Schedule

29. OB_UG_2002 GSM29 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed- Interval Fixed- Ratio Variable- Ratio Variable- Interval Ratio Variable Fixed

30. OB_UG_2002 GSM30 Social Learning Theory Individuals learn by observing what happens to other people, being told about something, as well as by direct experiences. People use these observations to create a “ model ” in their own mind of what is occuring.

31. OB_UG_2002 GSM31 Social Learning Theory Necessary components include Attentional processes. Retention processes. Motor reproduction processes. Reinforcement processes. Self-efficacy.

32. OB_UG_2002 GSM32 Definitions Attentional processes. People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. Retention processes. A model ’ s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model ’ s action after the model is no longer readily available.

33. OB_UG_2002 GSM33 Definitions Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. Reinforcement processes. Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided.

34. OB_UG_2002 GSM34 Definition Self-efficacy : a person ’ s belief about his or her ability to perform a particular behavior successfully.

35. OB_UG_2002 GSM35 To Encourage Self Efficacy 1. Encourage small successes 2. Let subordinates know that others like them have succeeded on especially challenging projects. 3. Have high expectations

36. OB_UG_2002 GSM36 Specific Organizational Applications Lotteries to Reduce Absenteeism Well Pay Vs. Sick Pay Employee Discipline Developing Training Programs Creating Mentoring Programs Self Management

37. OB_UG_2002 GSM37 Any More Applications?