MODERN ERA INTERACTIONS: 1750 - 1914.

MODERN ERA INTERACTIONS:

THEMES Modernization Westernization Democratization
Reform, industrialization, progress minus Westernization Westernization The west as the cultural, economic, political model Democratization Increasing franchise, increasing governmental voice Industrialization, Mechanization Machines, technology replace human, animal muscle Mass production of items, decreasing prices Commercialism, Consumerism Capitalism, profit, buying replace tradition, command in economics Disruptions, Conflict, War Change marks all societies leading to conflict, war Population Movements Urbanization, Immigration, Migration Western Global Hegemony It is the West and all of the Rest Globalization or Diversity Global Unity vs. Regional Autonomy; Think Globally, Act Locally

INTERACTIONS: WARS & CONFLICT 1750 - 1914
MODERN ERA INTERACTIONS: WARS & CONFLICT

THE FIRST “WORLD” WARS 1750 - 1765
War of Austrian Succession and Rise of Prussia France, Spain, England, Portugal, Dutch, Russia, Sweden in wars Rise of Prussia as a great power, England as a super power Showed balance of power doctrine at its fullest Colonial Wars Battles fought around the world Colonies changed hands, colonials effected English, French contest for North America France lost influence in North America, Caribbean, India England emerges as world’s super power British navy rules seas unopposed Acquires former French North American colonies Acquires preeminent influence in India Acquires right to supply slaves to Spanish Americas Spain, Portugal, Dutch no longer great powers American Revolution 1776 – 1783 and the Wider World Impact British colonists revolt, inspired by Enlightenment American ships ranged seas attacking English Dutch, French, Spanish support colonial efforts Dispatch aid, ships, troops to fight British in colonies, on seas Spain invades English colonies to support colonists Russians, Prussian, Swedes pledge an armed neutrality against UK Treaty of Ghent ends war, gives Americans independence Canada begins to rise as British loyalists immigrate to area Led to bankruptcy of France and French Revolution Great impact, influence on Latin Americans, European reformers

WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE

THE FRENCH & NAPOLEON An Era of Global Conflict from 1792 to 1814
French Revolution as Interaction French revolutionary success sparked interest throughout Europe, Americas Many revolutionary regimes set up by French armies in Italy, Germany Haiti rebels during French Revolution Spanish American colonies achieve independence Napoleon Bonaparte ( ) Brilliant military leader; upset the Balance of Power Became general in royal army at 24 Supported the revolution; defended the Directory His invasion of Egypt was defeated by British army Overthrew Directory; named himself consul for life Napoleon's empire 1804, proclaimed himself emperor Dominated the European continent Annexed lands in Italy, Netherlands, Germany, Spain; controlled other thrones Defeated Austria and Prussia, Occupied Spain and Portugal, allied with Scandinavia Perennial Enemy: Great Britain who controlled the high seas Disastrous invasions of Spain, Russia in 1812 destroyed Grand Army The fall of Napoleon Forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in 1814, exiled on Elba Escaped, returned to France, raised army Defeated by British in 1815 at Waterloo, exiled to St. Helena Collapse of much of Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French empires Great Britain became literally the only surviving major colonial power

EUROPE 1812 & 1815

RUSSIAN EXPANSION Nineteenth-century Russia
Collapse of Napoleon left Russia as great power Russia dominates Eastern Europe (saved both Prussia, Austria) Russia increased presence in Central Europe, Northern Europe Russia wants to push into Ottoman SE Europe, SW Asia Expands into Central Asia, Pacific Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Conservatism Official government policy to uphold conservatism Pre-destined Russia to oppose revolution, change everywhere Rise of Pan-Slavic Nationalism Sought to control all Orthodox, Slavs Brought Russia into conflict with Ottoman Empire, Austria in Balkans Also wanted access to Mediterranean Sea Hoped to seize control of Constantinople War against the Ottoman Empire Numerous wars to acquire Turkish lands in SE Europe, Caucasus Supported rise of Christian Balkan states under Russian influence Crimean War France, Great Britain, Sardinia supported Ottomans Crushing defeat; forced tsars to modernize army, industry Russo-Japanese War Russian expansion into China, Korea met Japan Japanese attack Russia without warning Defeat two Russian fleets, armies First defeat of a European by an Asian power Japan emerges as a world military power

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

THE SICK OLD MAN OF EUROPE
The issue of Ottoman State called the Eastern Question A central concern of European diplomacy from 1800 to 1914 At issue was whether to preserve or partition Ottoman Empire By 1800s, Ottoman Empire a dying state Central government Horribly corrupt, unable to reform, unviable Central authority breaks down and provinces begin to rebel, break off Multinational state Greeks, Slavs, Albanians, Rumanians, Jews, Arabs, Kurds, Armenians Conflicting traditions demanding autonomy Nationalism affects some subject peoples Mehmet Ali of Albania seeks independence Muhammad Ali of Egypt seeks independence Greek Rebellion in 1820 achieves independence Serbs, Bulgars, Rumanians, Albanians follow in late 19th century Russians, Austrians prey on Ottoman Territory Russians constantly looking to take over territory Austrians, Germans, French, English oppose Russian designs French, English interested in markets, protecting Suez Canal Balkan Wars and the Ottoman Empire Congress of Berlin 1878 Territory lost to Austria, Russia Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania, Bulgaria declared independent Westerners intervene to protect Christians, economic interests Often Russia was the loser and it bred Russian resentment Balkan Wars led to a Russo-France alliance and the Austro-German alliance England very troubled by late period German interest in Ottoman Empire World War I was often called the last of the Balkan Wars

THE DECLINE AND PARTITION OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

EGYPT & THE WORLD Napoleon’s Invasion of (Egypt) Ottoman Empire
French Revolution and ideas influence Ottoman Europeans Napoleon invaded Egypt, made radical changes while in possession Introduced westernization, nationalism into Egypt Destroyed Mameluk army without serious loss Showed the weakness, outdated nature of the Muslim institutions English halt invasion and restore Turkish control of Egypt Muhammad Ali emerges as ruler of Egypt after Napoleon Began process to modernize Egyptian army Hired European officers, adopted European tactics Invaded Syria; builds modern fleet to invade Greece, Turkey Modernizes economy to support military Increased production of cash crops for export: cotton, hemp, indigo Improved harbors, irrigation, increased revenues Reform frustrated by worried Europeans, traditional Muslims Europeans destroy navy at Battle of Navarino Khedives and European Intervention Successors to Muhammad Ali ruled Egypt, Sudan until 1956 Egypt: single export crop economy (cotton): vulnerable to fluctuations Khedives unable to balance expenses, borrowed heavily from Europeans; in debt The Suez Canal French build canal connecting Mediterranean, Red Sea (1869); controlled Egyptian debt Canal becomes critical to British empire, route to Asia; purchased Khedive’s stock British, French intervened militarily in 1882 when Khedive could not pay debts Khedive calls in British troops to protect him from army revolt British intervened, ruled Egypt through puppets, the Khedive British officers controlled Egypt’s finance, foreign affairs; protect Canal

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR War not just an American domestic conflict
France, UK nearly intervened for South Both dependent on Southern cotton Both provided aid to Southern blockade runners France and Mexico Revolution ousted Santa Anna; Juarez new leader Mexico owed Europeans money Europeans occupy Veracruz, ignored Monroe Doctrine France set up a puppet regime under Austrian emperor Austria, Prussia, Russia supported North Saw Southern secession as revolt against legitimacy Poland 1863: Three nations suppressed rebellion Three nations warned France, UK not to get involved Russian fleets anchored in Northern ports US bought Alaska in 1867 to repay Russia for support Prussia observed Union military Learned from Northern art of war, rebuilt army Increased use of railroads as instrument of war Emancipation Proclamation, Gettysburg Address Had world impact Reminded French, English that North not South represented democracy Came at same time as the Russian emancipation of their serfs Union’s Industry and Agriculture productivity increased Northern industry boomed; after war turned to exporting finished goods Northern agriculture mechanized to support war; increased productivity, exports Egypt and India developed Cotton production increased to offset loss of American cotton UK and France increased interests in Egypt, India Brazil became last slave holding regime in Americas after 1865

MEXICO IN MODERN ERA: INSTABILITY AND FOREIGN INTERVENTION
Mexican Republic under Santa Anna Until his death dominated Mexico Saw himself as a Latin Napoleon Constantly in debt to foreigners Revolt of Texas led to conflict with US Mexican American War 1846 – 1848 Mexico lost 1/3 of its territory Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo US expanded to Pacific and annexed Texas The French Intervention Benito Juarez Liberal Indian President of Mexico He started a liberal revolt La Reforma which was powerful Conservatives turned to French for support French troops land French install an Austrian emperor on throne Backed emperor with French troops, French money US demanded French withdrawal in 1867 Supply insurgents with arms; Juaristas win Diaz Era Dictatorship to 1910 Encouraged foreign investors Built rails, telegraphs; developed mines, plantations Country largely became property of American businesses Mexican oligarchy and foreign investors got wealthy Average Mexican standard of living declined; Indians exploited

OPIUM WARS 1795 Maccauley Mission and After Opium trade
British send diplomatic, trade delegation to China Chinese tell British they are not interested in trade China made mistake of underestimating Europeans Forced British, Europeans to trade through Canton Chinese exported silks, porcelains, teas for silver Chinese refused to trade for manufactures Opium trade A serious threat to Qing dynasty by 19th century Cohong system restricted foreign merchants to Canton China had much to offer, but little demand for European products East India Company cultivated opium to trade for Chinese goods British found that Chinese would trade for opium 1810: 4500 chests weighing 133 pounds yearly By 1839, 40,000 chests traded yearly Opium draining revenue, destroying economy, society By 1838, 1% of 400 million Chinese were addicted The Opium War ( ) Commissioner Lin Zexu directed to stop trade British merchants refused Lin confiscated, destroyed 20,000 chests of opium British reaction British retaliated, easily crushed Chinese forces, destroyed Grand Canal British navy destroyed Chinese navy with steam gunboats British army invades and emperor sues for peace 2nd Opium war erupts in 1850s which the British won British begin using Hong Kong and five other ports 2nd Opium War in 1860s: France, UK crush China

CHINA: UNEQUAL TREATIES
Unequal treaties forced trade concessions from Qing dynasty Treaty of Nanjing, 1842 Britain gained right to opium trade Obtained most-favored-nation status Hong Kong ceded to Great Britain Called unequal treaties Made with western countries and Japan Extraterritoriality Foreigners not subject to Chinese laws Criminal acts tried in Western courts Chinese crimes against westerners tried in western courts By 1900, China lost control of economy to foreigners Foreigners invest in China, control industry Ninety ports open to foreign powers Foreigners issued own stamps, had own post Spheres of influence eroded Chinese power Foreign powers seized Chinese tribute states Vietnam (France) Burma (United Kingdom) Korea, Taiwan (Japan) Effective partition of China by 1898 China carved into spheres of economic influence France: Southern China UK: Canton area, Shantung area, Yangzte River, Tibet Russia: Manchuria, Sinkjiang Japan: Amoy area across from Taiwan, Southern Manchuria Chinese government ineffective Foreign merchants, missionaries free to run about country Foreign legations (embassies) control many cities Western, Japanese ships sail up, down rivers without interruption

CHINA & CONCESSIONS

INTERACTIONS: IMPERIALISM 1750 - 1914
MODERN ERA INTERACTIONS: IMPERIALISM

IMPERIALISM Motives of imperialism Tools of empire
Modern imperialism Refers to domination of industrialized countries over subject lands Domination achieved by trade, investment, business activities Two types of modern colonialism Colonies ruled and populated by migrants Colonies controlled without significant settlement Economic motives of imperialism European merchants made personal fortunes Expansion to obtain raw materials Colonies were potential markets for products Political motives Strategic purpose: harbors, supply stations Overseas expansion used to defuse internal tensions Cultural justifications of imperialism Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia "Civilizing mission“/"white man's burden“ justified expansion Tools of empire Transportation technologies supported imperialism Steam-powered gunboats reached inland waters of Africa and Asia Railroads organized local economies to serve imperial power Western military technologies increasingly powerful Firearms: from muskets to rifles to machines guns In Battle of Omdurman 1898, British troops killed eleven thousand Sudanese in five hours Communication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies Oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain to India to weeks Telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900 Difference between colonialism and imperialism

EMPIRE IN ASIA The British empire in India
Company rule under the English East India Company EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began conquest of India in 1750s Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay Ruled with small British force, Indian troops called sepoys Sepoy Rebellion, 1857: attacks on British led to reprisals British imperial rule replaced the EIC, 1858 British viceroy and high-level British civil service ruled India British appointed viceroy, ran all domestic, foreign policy Indians held low-level bureaucratic positions Economic restructuring of India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Introduction of commercial crops: tea, coffee, opium Built railroads, telegraph lines, canals, harbors, irrigation Did not interfere with Indian culture, religion Established English-style schools for Indian elites Outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, (sati) Imperialism in central Asia and southeast Asia "Great Game" refers to competition between Britain, Russia in central Asia By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British India Russian and British explorers mapped, scouted, but never colonized Afghanistan Russian dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991 Dutch East India Company held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East India) British colonies in southeast Asia Established colonial authority in Burma, 1880s Port of Singapore founded 1824; was base for conquest of Malaya, 1870s French Indochina created, Consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos--former tribute states of Qing dynasty French encouraged conversion to Christianity, established western-style schools Thailand left in place as buffer between Burma and Indochina

IMPERIALISM IN ASIA

SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1875 and 1900 South Africa
European powers seized almost the entire continent Early explorers charted the waters, gathered information on resources Missionaries like David Livingstone set up mission posts Henry Stanley sent by Leopold II of Belgium to create colony in Congo, 1870s To protect their investments and Suez Canal, Britain occupied Egypt, 1882 South Africa Settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth century By 1800 was a European settler colony with enslaved black African population British seized Cape Colony in early nineteenth century, abolished slavery in 1833 British-Dutch tensions led to Great Trek of Afrikaners inland to claim new lands Mid-19TH century, they established Orange Free State in 1854, Transvaal in 1860 Discovery of gold and diamonds in Afrikaner lands; influx of British settlers Boer War, : British defeated Afrikaners, Union of South Africa The Berlin Conference, European powers set rules for carving Africa into colonies, Africans not invited Occupation, supported by European armies, established colonial rule in Africa By 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled by European powers Colonial rule challenging and expensive "Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian Congo unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule Direct rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--French model justified by "civilizing mission" hard to find enough European personnel Indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--British model worked best in African societies that were highly organized assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed

AFRICA 1880 & 1914

EMPIRES IN THE PACIFIC Australia and New Zealand Pacific Islands
Both became settler colonies in the Pacific 1770, Captain Cook reached Australia, reported it suitable for settlement 1788, one thousand settlers established colony of New South Wales Became a penal colony after loss of Georgia in American Revolution 1851, gold discovered; surge of European migration to Australia Fertile soil and timber of New Zealand attracted European settlers Europeans diseases dramatically reduced aboriginal populations European flora and fauna replaced most native species Large settler societies forced indigenous peoples onto marginal lands Pacific Islands Spain and the Pacific Pacific had been a Spanish possession until 19th century (Philippines, Micronesia) Spanish yearly shipments of silver from Mexico to China ended in 1812 Colonization of Pacific Islands delayed until late nineteenth century Early American visitors to the Pacific American Whalers throughout region after American revolution American merchants on way to China began in 19th century California Gold Rush open Pacific coast to immigrants from Europe, China US challenged rule in 1854 when Commodore Perry forced Japan to open ports Some missionaries active especially in Hawaii and on way to China Late nineteenth century, European states sought coaling stations and naval ports 1867: USA acquires Alaska, Wake Island 1898: USA acquires Hawaii, Philippines, Guam 1899: German buys remaining Spanish islands By 1900, all islands claimed by France, Britain, Germany and United States. Island plantations produced sugarcane, copra, guano

EMPIRES IN THE PACIFIC

U.S. IMPERIALISM Westward Expansion, Manifest Destiny precede overseas imperialism Americans push west after American revolution Drove Indians from land US purchases Louisiana from France Opened up West to settlement Americans saw it as God-given right to occupy continent The Monroe Doctrine and Latin America 1823: proclamation by U.S. president James Monroe Opposed European imperialism in the Americas Justified American interventions in late 19th, 20th century Used doctrine to tell France to withdraw from Mexico in 1867 United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867 Hawaii became a protectorate in 1875, formally annexed in 1898 Tended to leave area open only for American investments, loans The Mexican American War 1846 – 1848 US annexation of Texas set off conflict with Mexico US defeats Mexico, annexed 1/3 of Mexican territory Settlement of Far West, Pacific Coast, Great Basin follows 1867 – 1898 Acquires small Pacific Islands, Alaska from Russia in 1867 Economic interests in Hawaii lead to revolution, annexation in 1898 The Spanish-American War ( ) US defeated Spain and took over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines US and Philippines Backed Filipino revolt against Spain, purchased and took over the colony , bitter civil war killed two hundred thousand Filipinos, ended in U.S. victory The Panama Canal, Colombian government refused U.S. request to build canal at Panama isthmus US helped rebels establish the state of Panama for the right to build a canal Completed in 1914; gave United States access to Atlantic and Pacific

MANIFEST DESTINY What one painting can tell us

MAP OF AMERICAN IMPERIALISM

IMPERIAL JAPAN Japan and the West
1854: US Commodore Perry forces Japan out of isolation Japanese resented unequal treaties of 1860s Borrowed western knowledge Resolved to become imperial power Early Japanese expansion in nearby islands 1870s, to the north: Hokkaido, Kurile islands By 1879, to the south: Okinawa and Ryukyu Islands Meiji Government Prussia trained Japanese army, Britain trained Japanese navy Bought British warships, built up navy, began building own ships Established military academies 1876, imposed unequal treaties on Korea at gunpoint Made plans to invade China The Sino-Japanese War ( ) Rebellion in Korea: Chinese army sent to restore order, reassert authority Meiji leaders declared war against China, demolished Chinese fleet China forced to cede Korea, Taiwan, Pescadores, Liaodong peninsula Japan helps suppress Boxer Rebellion, creates own zones in China The Russo-Japanese War ( ) Russia had territorial ambitions in Liaodong peninsula, Korea, Manchuria Japanese navy destroyed local Russian forces Reinforcements from Baltic sunk at Battle of Tushima Japan now a major imperial power Made an alliance with Great Britain 1910: Annexes Korea

JAPANESE EMPIRE

INTERACTIONS: RISE OF INTERNATIONAL DIPLOMACY 1750 - 1914
MODERN ERA INTERACTIONS: RISE OF INTERNATIONAL DIPLOMACY

DIPLOMACY: BALANCE OF POWER & HEGEMONY
Century: Era of Western hegemony in all areas Balance of Power dominates century After Napoleon, great powers kept peace Intervened in European affairs to maintain balance Goals and Policies No one power should dominate No nation should be eliminated No permanent ideologies threaten peace Brokered conferences to decide touchy issues International Organizations Non-governmental Organizations new in history Try to promote international accord Establish cooperation Red Cross Established at end of Crimean War Provide health care, relief following catastrophes Olympics Resurrected in 1896 Healthy competition International Laws Diplomacy reaches highest level during period Rules of Peace and War Hague Conferences and Conventions Agreements create standards, rules of war, peace Neutrality was a key concept Civilians were not to be touched

PRE-WAR ALLIANCES Rival systems of alliance The Triple Alliance
Germany forms alliances Bismarck attempts to isolate France Until 1890, Germany had alliances with all except France Obligated allies to come to one another's defense France and Russia Found themselves isolated, fearful of Germany Formed Double Entente to end their isolation The Triple Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy Germany, Austria allied 1879 Italy joined in 1882 (Triple Alliance) Others Allied States Ottoman Empire: German railroads, reforms of military Bulgaria and Rumania fearful of Russia and Serbia The Double and Later Triple Entente France, Russia Common enemy: Germany, common war plans Worked together diplomatically Why the United Kingdom joined Due to rivalry with Germany over colonies and German construction of a navy After German pre-war diplomacy seemed to lead to war Shifting series of treaties ended with a military pact, 1914 Japan had a separate alliance with Great Britain for Asia Pacific War plans: each power poised and prepared for war Military leaders devised inflexible military plans and timetables France's Plan XVII focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks Germany's Schlieffen plan: swift attack on France, defend against Russia

ALLIANCES c. 1914

INTERACTIONS: TRADE AND COMMERCE 1750 - 1914
MODERN ERA INTERACTIONS: TRADE AND COMMERCE

COMMERCIAL IDEOLOGIES IN 1750
Mercantilism Limited amount of wealth in the world If one nation benefited, another suffered Goal is to maximize nation’s portion of trade Goal is to exclude competition from markets and monopolize wealth Governments pass legislation to support domestic commerce Trade incentives for local producers Establish barriers to outside trade Tariffs, excise taxes Quotas, restrictions on imports Infant industries support Governments support colonization, imperialism Colonization: find homes for excess population Imperialism provides markets, resources for domestic industry Foreign possessions bring glory, wealth to the nation Almost every nation in the world subscribes to this theory Free Trade Wealth is not finite but can be created To maximize wealth, allow people, industry to compete freely Governments exist to protect competition, not guarantee success UK, US (American colonies), Dutch are free traders Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nation Intellectual father of capitalism, free trade; ideas came to dominate US, Great Britain By 1914 UK was 1st in world, US was 3rd English, American companies dominated world trade, finance, industry, capital Even Germany, 2nd practiced the doctrine often

ECONOMIC EXCHANGES IN 1750 Domestic Trade International Trade
Most commerce is internal, most markets are autarkic: self-sufficient Great wealth is generated in trade but not as much as domestic production Most workers, farmers generate wealth only sufficient for self consumption International Trade Conditions of Trade Mercantilism predominates International trade tends to be limited to cash crops, finished luxuries Western Europe dominates most trade Only Eastern Asia has the ability to rival, challenge Western Europe Trade Markets Western European exports and imports Exports: finished products, finished luxuries Imports: raw materials, minerals, primary crop luxuries Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Northern Europe, SW Asia Imports: finished products, finished luxuries Exports: minerals, primary products, grains Americas including Caribbean, South Asia Exports: minerals, primary products, cash crops Eastern Asia Exports: finished products, finished luxuries, cloths, silks Imports: minerals (silver), luxuries, luxury food Note: most economies limit European influence, contacts Africa Imports: finished products, finished luxuries, cash crops Exports: slaves, ivory, gold, cloves

ECONOMIC EXCHANGES IN 1914 Saw the rise of international trade
Trade involved all types of products, goods for first time Entire world involved: all continents, peoples effected Some nations traded to exist: made their wealth off of trade Very few nations produced finished goods for international market (core) Most nations supplied world markets with raw materials (periphery) Nations had begun to specialize in trade (we cannot produce everything) Terms of Trade Most items traded were finished goods, industrial products Wealthy nations tended to trade with each other Western Colonies, Latin America, all of Asia except Japan Only accounted for a small part of trade Generally exported primary products, imported finished products Nations began negotiating trade agreements The US and later UK came to favor open markets (markets open to all) Most favored nation status was goal: partners traded as equals Rise of international capital markets Domestic profit needed to be invested, sometimes best opportunities abroad Money invested abroad to reap benefits at home Rise of international banks, investment opportunities Rise of Multinational Corporations Corporations had branches, outlets in other nations Facilitated the transfer of technology, ideas, people between continents International Economic Exchanges Linked the world better than most ideologies Was an instrument of revolutionary change to traditional societies Was a threat to traditional societies Rise of international communism, socialism as reactions to international wealth

MODERN ERA INTERACTIONS: 1750 - 1914.

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MODERN ERA INTERACTIONS: 1750 - 1914.

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