1. Gender and Assets Cheryl Doss, Yale University

2. Is there a gender-asset gap? Does it matter? How do we understand the causes and consequences of the gender-asset gap?

3. Gender-land gap COUNTRY/ YEAR WOMENMENCOUPLETOTALSAMPLE Brazil (2000) 11%89%N/A100%39,904 Honduras (2001) 26%74%N/A100%808 Mexico (2002) 22%78N/A100%2.9 m. Nicaragua (2000) 22%78N/A100%2,474 Paraguay (2001) 27%703100%1,694 Peru (2000) 137413100%1,923

4. US Gender-Asset Gap Over Time 1860: Women 6% of asset owners, owned 7% of wealth (census data) 1922: Women 25% owners, 25% of wealth 1953: Women 33% owners,39% of wealth (estate tax returns) 1969: Women 43% owners, of 43% wealth (estate tax returns; top 4% population)

5. The gender-asset gap: Evidence UK: Gender distribution of pension wealth (women own 29%) more skewed than total wealth (44%); race is important New Zealand: Single women slightly wealthier than single men, but big differences are between single and married US: Median and mean assets of married couples more than twice that of single men or women US: Disadvantages of parenthood: large wealth gap between single mothers and fathers vs. childless; divorced women vs. divorced men; divorced mothers vs. childless women

6. Why is women’s asset ownership important? Equity Different uses of wealth by gender Productive assets allow escape from poverty Assets reduce vulnerability to shocks Assets are related to well-being and empowerment Women may not share in benefits of men’s assets

7. Causes: Accumulation patterns Marriage Inheritance Gifts and transfers Market purchases State or community distribution All of these channels conditioned by gender.

8. Inheritance is the primary means for women to accumulate land in LA % of women’s land acquired through inheritance Brazil 54% Chile 84% Honduras 40% (58% through market) Mexico 81% Nicaragua 37% (46% through market) Peru 75%

9. Interaction of marital regimes and inheritance laws Marital regimes: common property vs. separation of property Inheritance laws Who inherits? Spouse, sons, daughters These suggest that it is necessary to collect individual level asset data, not just household level data

10. Gender asset gap varies across the life cycle: In Northern Nigeria: Women bring 1,354 naira to marriage and men bring 10,276 At the time of the survey men had 14,633 and women had 876 So men accumulate during marriage and women spend their assets down

11. Social norms may affect: Which assets are considered appropriate for women to own Perception of women as farmers or entrepreneurs Women’s roles as wives and mothers Willingness of women to claim rights Management of money

12. Consequences: Expenditure patterns (food, education versus “men’s goods”) Domestic violence Relationship between property ownership, social assets, income stability and self esteem Security from owning a house Relationships with markets: labor, credit and product

13. Challenges: Varying rights over assets Asset ownership With or without title, joint or individual Access to assets Control over assets Secure tenure Specific, but limited rights, such as milking rights. Ask about bundles of rights regarding assets and security of tenure

14. Challenges: Collecting individual level data Reasons to do so: Assets are usually owned by individuals, but data collected at household level We need to know what when the household dissolves, due to death or divorce