1. THE GEOSPHERE

2. The geosphere Is made up of rocks and rocks are made up of minerals
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks
Elements are the building blocks of minerals

3. The geosphere is made up of rocks and minerals
Just eight elements account for 98% of Earth’s mass.

4. FORMATION OF THE GEOSPHERE
Formation of the elements by the collision of the Sun
Released of heat (change from kinetic energy to heat energy)
More gravitational attraction toward the planet`s center
Radioactive decay

5. Composition of the Earth Earth`s layers

6. Earth`s layers Core: iron rich, dense Mantle: less dense, rocky
Crust: even less dense, rocky. Composed of lighter elements (Oxygen and Silicon)

7. Earth`s crust
Oxygen and silicon make up 75% of Earth’s crust.

8. Minerals
Is a naturally formed, inorganic crystalline solid, composed of a determinable and ordered arrangement of atoms with specific chemical composition
It is not manufactured in laboratories
Ordered in a geometric pattern
Have a range of compositions
It is not made up of organic compounds (no Carbon involved neither living things)

9. Mineral properties
Are classified by the chemical composition and the crystal structure
Identified by physical properties

10. Crystal form Perfect geometric forms
Is an expression of the ordely arrangement of its atoms
Every mineral has a unique combination of composition and crystal form

11. Crystal form
Some minerals have the same composition but different arrangement of their atoms
Diamond and graphite are two examples
Such minerals are called polymorphs.
With a different crystal structure, the minerals will have different properties.

12. Crystal form
Internal atomic arrangement is determined by atom/ion charge, size, and packing.
The conditions in which the crystal grows also affect crystal form.
Temperature, pressure, space for growth

13. Mineral Properties: Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching.
Hardness is dependent on the strength of a mineral’s chemical bonds.
Bond strength is determined by ionic charge, atom (or ion) size, and packing.
The Mohs Scale compares the hardness of different minerals.

14. Mineral Properties: Hardness

15. Mineral Properties: Cleavage and Fracture
Cleavage is the property of a mineral to break along planes of weakness.
Planes of weakness are determined by crystal structure and bond strength.

16. Mineral Properties: fracture
Fracture occurs in minerals where bond strength is generally the same in all directions.
Minerals that fracture do not exhibit cleavage.

17. Mineral Properties: Color
Color is an obvious feature for many minerals, but it is not reliable for mineral identification.
Chemical impurities can change a mineral’s color.
A mineral may occur in many color variations or be colorless.

18. Mineral Properties: Density
Density is the ratio of a mineral’s mass to its volume.
In simple terms, it is how heavy a mineral feels for its size (volume).

19. Classification of Rock-Forming Minerals
There are two classifications of minerals:
Silicate minerals
Nonsilicate minerals
Silicate minerals make up more than 90% of the Earth’s crust.

20. Classification of Rock-Forming Minerals
Silicate minerals are made up of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) atoms, along with other elements (Al, Mg, Fe, Mn, and Ti).

21. Classification of Rock-Forming Minerals
The Silicates are divided into two groups:
Ferromagnesian silicates
Contain iron and/or magnesium
Tend to have high density and are darkly colored
Nonferromagnesian silicates
No iron or magnesium
Tend to have low density and are light in color

22. Classification of Rock-Forming Minerals
Nonsilicate minerals make up about 8% of Earth’s crust.
Carbonate minerals
Calcite, dolomite
Oxide minerals
Ore minerals—hematite, magnetite, chromite
Sulfide minerals
Ore minerals—pyrite, galena

23. Classification of Rock-Forming Minerals
Sulfate minerals
Gypsum, anhydrate
Native elements
Gold, platinum, iron

24. The Formation of Minerals and Rock
Minerals form by the process of crystallization.
Crystallization is the formation and growth of a solid from a liquid or gas
Minerals crystallize from two primary sources:
Magma (molten rock)
Water solutions

25. The Formation of Minerals and Rock
Minerals crystallize systematically based on their respective melting points.
The first minerals to crystallize from a magma are those with the highest melting point and the lowest amount of silica.
The last minerals to crystallize from a magma are those with lower melting points and higher amounts of silica.

26. The Formation of Minerals and Rock
Water solutions associated with later stages of crystallization from magma account for many important deposits.
As water solutions become chemically saturated, minerals precipitate
For chemical sediments, solubility rather than melting point determines which minerals will form first
Low-solubility minerals precipitate first.
High-solubility minerals precipitate last.

27. Rock Types
A rock is an aggregate of minerals—a physical mixture. The three categories of rock reflect how they were formed:
Igneous
Formed from cooling and crystallization of magma or lava

28. Rock Types Sedimentary
Formed from preexisting rocks subjected to weathering and erosion

29. Rock Types Metamorphic
Formed from preexisting rock transformed by heat, pressure, or chemical fluids

31. Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and crystallization of magma or lava.
Role of heat: induce melting points
Role of pressure: reduced pressure lowers the melting temperature of rock
Role of fluids: fluids (primarily water) cause rocks to melt at lower temperatures.

32. Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks are products of 4 processes:
Weathering
Erosion
Deposition
Sedimentation

33. Sedimentary rocks
Weathering—the physical breakdown and chemical alteration of rock at Earth’s surface
Two types of weathering:
Mechanical weathering—breaking and disintegration of rocks into smaller pieces.
Chemical weathering—chemical decomposition and transformation of rock into one or more new compounds.

34. Sedimentary rocks
Erosion—the physical removal of material by mobile agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity.
Erosion does not occur in place. It involves movement.

35. Sedimentary rocks
Deposition: the stage in which eroded particles come to rest. Larger particles are the first to be deposited. Smaller particles are able to remain with the flow. In this way, sediments are sorted according to size as they are deposited.

36. Sedimentary rocks
During sedimentation, sediment particles are deposited horizontally layer by layer.
As deposited sediment accumulates, it changes into sedimentary rock.

37. Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks are produced from:
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Other metamorphic rocks
Metamorphism occurs via recrystallization and mechanical deformation.

38. The rock cycle
Molten rock rises from the depths of Earth, cools, solidifies, and eventually returns to become magma again.