1. MAC Protocols In Sensor Networks

2.  MAC allows multiple users to share a common channel.  Conflict-free protocols ensure successful transmission. Channel can be allocated to users statically or dynamically.  Only static conflict-free protocols are used in cellular mobile communications - (FDMA): provides a fraction of the frequency range to each user for all the time - (TDMA) : The entire frequency band is allocated to a single user for a fraction of time - (CDMA) : provides every user a portion of bandwidth for a fraction of time  Only static conflict-free protocols are used in cellular mobile communications - Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): provides a fraction of the frequency range to each user for all the time - Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) : The entire frequency band is allocated to a single user for a fraction of time - Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) : provides every user a portion of bandwidth for a fraction of time  Contention based protocols must prescribe ways to resolve conflicts - Static Conflict Resolution: Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) - Dynamic Conflict Resolution: the Ethernet, which keeps track of various system parameters, ordering the users accordingly Multiple Access Control (MAC) Protocols

3.  Channels are assigned to the user for the duration of a call. No other user can access the channel during that time. When call terminates, the same channel can be re-assigned to another user  FDMA is used in nearly all first generation mobile communication systems, like AMPS (30 KHz channels)  Number of channels required to support a user population depends on the average number of calls generated, average duration of a call and the required quality of service (e.g. percentage of blocked calls) Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3 Channel 4 Bandwidth Time Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

4.  The whole channel is assigned to each user, but the users are multiplexed in time during communication. Each communicating user is assigned a particular time slot, during which it communicates using the entire frequency spectrum  The data rate of the channel is the sum of the data rates of all the multiplexed transmissions  There is always channel interference between transmission in two adjacent slots because transmissions tend to overlap in time. This interference limits the number of users that can share the channel Time Channel 1 Bandwidth Channel 2 Channel 3 Channel 4 Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

5.  CDMA, a type of a spread-spectrum technique, allows multiple users to share the same channel by multiplexing their transmissions in code space. Different signals from different users are encoded by different codes (keys) and coexist both in time and frequency domains  A code is represented by a wideband pseudo noise (PN) signal  When decoding a transmitted signal at the receiver, because of low cross- correlation of different codes, other transmissions appear as noise. This property enables the multiplexing of a number of transmissions on the same channel with minimal interference  The maximum allowable interference (from other transmissions) limits the number of simultaneous transmissions on the same channel All channels share bandwidth Bandwidth Time Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

6.  Spreading of the signal bandwidth can be performed using - Direct Sequence (DS): the narrow band signal representing digital data is multiplied by a wideband pseudo noise (PN) signal representing the code. Multiplication in the time domain translates to convolution in the spectral domain. Thus the resulting signal is wideband - Frequency Hopping (FH): carrier frequency rapidly hops among a large set of possible frequencies according to some pseudo random sequence (the code). The set of frequencies spans a large bandwidth. Thus the bandwidth of the transmitted signal appears as largely spread Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

7. –S- MAC protocol designed specifically for sensor networks to reduce energy consumption while achieving good scalability and collision avoidance by utilizing a combined scheduling and contention scheme –The major sources of energy waste are: 1.collision 2.overhearing 3.control packet overhead 4.idle listening –S-MAC reduce the waste of energy from all the sources mentioned in exchange of some reduction in both per-hop fairness and latency An Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks (S-MAC) [Ye+ 2002]

8. –S- MAC protocol consist of three major components: 1.periodic listen and sleep 2.collision and overhearing avoidance 3.Message passing –Contributions of S-MAC are:  The scheme of periodic listen and sleep helps in reducing energy consumption by avoiding idle listening. The use of synchronization to form virtual clusters of nodes on the same sleep schedule  In-channel signaling puts each node to sleep when its neighbor is transmitting to another node (solves the overhearing problem and does not require additional channel)  Message passing technique to reduce application-perceived latency and control overhead (per-node fragment level fairness is reduced)  Evaluating an implementation of S-MAC over sensor-net specific hardware (S-MAC) [Ye+ 2002]

9. –Why STUDY MAC protocols in sensor networks?  Application behavior in sensor networks leads to very different traffic characteristics from that found in conventional computer networks  Highly constrained resources and functionality  Small packet size  Deep multi-hop dynamic topologies  The network tends to operate as a collective structure, rather than supporting many independent point-to-point flows  Traffic tends to be variable and highly correlated  Little or no activity/traffic for longer periods and intense traffic over shorter periods A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks [Woo+, 2003]

10. –Major factors to be considered in the design of MAC:  Communication efficiency in terms of energy consumed per each packet oCommunication by radio channel consumes the highest energy oTransmit, receive and idle consume roughly the same amount of energy  Fairness of the bandwidth allocated to each node for end to end data delivery to sink oEach node acts as a router as well as data originator resulting in two kinds of traffic oThe traffics compete for the same upstream bandwidth oHidden nodes  Contention at the upstream node may not be detected and results in significant loss rate  Efficient channel utilization A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks [Woo+, 2003]

11. –Major factors to be considered in the design of MAC:  The routing distance and degree of intermediate competition varies widely across the network  The cost of dropping a packet varies with place and the packet –Contribution of this paper are as follows:  Listening mechanism: oListening is effective when there are no hidden nodes oIt comes at an expense of energy cost as the radio must be on to listen oMany protocols such as IEEE 802.11 require sensing the channel even during backoff oShorten the length of carrier sensing and power off the node during backoff oHighly synchronized nature of the traffic causes no packet transfer at all in the absence of collision detection hardware oIntroduce random delay for transmission to unsynchronized the nodes A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks [Woo+, 2003]

12.  Backoff Mechanism: oUsed to reduce the contention among the nodes oIn the sensor networks, traffic is a superposition of different periodic streams oApply back off as a phase shift to the periodicity of the application so that the synchronization among periodic streams of traffic can be broken  Contention-based Mechanism oExplicit control packets like RTS and CTS are used to avoid contention oACKS indicate lack of collision oUse of lot of control packets reduces bandwidth efficiency oACKS can be eliminated by hearing the packet transmission from its parent to its upstream which serves as an ACK for the downstream node A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks [Woo+, 2003]

13.  Rate Control Mechanism oThe competition between originating traffic and route-thru traffic has a direct impact in achieving the fairness goal. oMAC should control the rate of originating data of a node in order to allow route-thru traffic to access the channel and reach the base station and some kind of progressive signaling for route-thru traffic such the rate is controlled at the origin. oA passive implicit mechanism is used to control the rate of transmission of both traffics A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks [Woo+, 2003]

14.  Multi-hop Hidden Node problem: oIt avoid the hidden node problem by constantly tuning the transmission rate and performing phase changes so that the aggregate traffic will not repeatedly collide with each other. oA child can reduce a potential hidden node problem with its grand parent by not sending packets for t+ x+ packet time at the end of packet transmission t by its parent A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks [Woo+, 2003]

15. Advantages: –The amount of computation for this scheme is small and within networked sensor’s computation capability –The scheme is totally computational which is much cheaper in energy cost than on the radio –The control packet overhead is reduced A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks [Woo+, 2003]

16. Disadvantages: –The MAC protocol developed here takes into consideration the periodicity of the originating traffic which doesn’t help for non periodic traffic A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks [Woo+, 2003]

17. Suggestions/Improvements/Future Work: A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks [Woo+, 2003]

18. –T-MAC is a contention based Medium Access Control Protocol –Energy consumption is reduced by introducing an active/sleep duty cycle –Handles the load variations in time and location by introducing an adaptive duty cycle  It reduces the amount of energy wasted on idle listening by dynamically ending the active part of it –In T-MAC, nodes communicate using RTS, CTS, Data and ACK pkts which provides collision avoidance and reliable transmission –When a node senses the medium idle for TA amount of time it immediately switches to sleep –TA determines the minimal amount of idle listening time per frame –The incoming messages between two active states are buffered An Adaptive Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks [Van dam+, 2003]

19. –The buffer capacity determines an upper bound on the maximum frame time –Frame synchronization in T-MAC follows the scheme of virtual clustering as in S-MAC –The RTS transmission in T-MAC starts by waiting and listening for a random time within a fixed contention interval at the beginning of the each active state –The TA time is obtained using TA > C + R + T –T-MAC suffers from early sleeping problem –Its overcome by sending Future request to send or taking priority on full buffers An Adaptive Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks [Van dam+, 2003]

20. Advantages: –The T-MAC protocol is designed particularly for wireless sensor networks and hence energy consumption constraints are taken into account –The T-MAC protocol tries to reduce idle listening by transmitting all messages in bursts of variable lengths and sleeping between burst –T-MAC facilitates collision avoidance and overhearing -- nodes transmit their data in a single burst and thus do not require additional RTS/CTS control packets. –By stressing on RTS retries, T-MAC gives the receiving nodes enough chance to listen and reply before it actually goes to sleep -- this increases the throughput in the long run An Adaptive Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks [Van dam+, 2003]

21. Disadvantages: –The authors do not outline how a sender node would sense a FRTS packet and enable it to send a DS packet –Also sending a DS packet increases the overhead. –The network topology in the simulation considers that the locations of the nodes are known –T-MAC has been observed to have a high message loss phenomenon –T-MAC suffers from early sleeping problem for event based local unicast An Adaptive Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks [Van dam+, 2003]

22. Suggestions/Improvements/Future Work: –If a buffer is full there would be a lot of dropped packets decreasing the throughput. A method to overcome this drawback is that we could have the node with its buffer 75% full broadcast a special packet Buffer Full Packet –MAC Virtual Clustering technique needs to be further investigated –An adaptive election algorithm can be incorporated where the schedule and neighborhood information is used to select the transmitter and receivers for the current time slot, hence avoiding collision and increasing energy conservation An Adaptive Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks [Van dam+, 2003]

23. [Ye+ 2002] W. Yei, J. Heidemann and D. Estrin, Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks, Proceedings of the Twenty First International Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies (INFOCOM 2002), New York, NY, USA, June 23-27 2002. [Woo+ 2003] A. Woo and D. Culler, A Transmission Control Scheme for Media Access in Sensor Networks, Proceedings of the ACM/IEEE International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, Rome, Italy, July 2001, pp. 221-235. [Van Dam+ 2003] T. V. Dam and K. Langendoen, An Adaptive Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks, ACM SenSys, Los Angeles, CA, November, 2003. References