1. Chapter 10 Elasticity & Oscillations

2. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-102 Elasticity and Oscillations Elastic Deformations Hooke’s Law Stress and Strain Shear Deformations Volume Deformations Simple Harmonic Motion The Pendulum Damped Oscillations, Forced Oscillations, and Resonance

3. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-103 Elastic Deformation of Solids A deformation is the change in size or shape of an object. An elastic object is one that returns to its original size and shape after contact forces have been removed. If the forces acting on the object are too large, the object can be permanently distorted.

4. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-104 Hooke’s Law F F Apply a force to both ends of a long wire. These forces will stretch the wire from length L to L+  L.

5. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-105 Define: The fractional change in length Force per unit cross- sectional area Stress and Strain Stretching ==> Tensile Stress Squeezing ==> Compressive Stress

6. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-106 Hooke’s Law (F  x) can be written in terms of stress and strain (stress  strain). The spring constant k is now Y is called Young’s modulus and is a measure of an object’s stiffness. Hooke’s Law holds for an object to a point called the proportional limit. Hooke’s Law

7. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-107 A steel beam is placed vertically in the basement of a building to keep the floor above from sagging. The load on the beam is 5.8  10 4 N and the length of the beam is 2.5 m, and the cross-sectional area of the beam is 7.5  10  3 m 2. Find the vertical compression of the beam. Force of floor on beam Force of ceiling on beam For steel Y = 200  10 9 Pa. Compressive Stress

8. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-108 Example (text problem 10.7): A 0.50 m long guitar string, of cross-sectional area 1.0  10  6 m 2, has a Young’s modulus of 2.0  10 9 Pa. By how much must you stretch a guitar string to obtain a tension of 20 N? Tensile Stress

9. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-109 Beyond Hooke’s Law Elastic Limit If the stress on an object exceeds the elastic limit, then the object will not return to its original length. Breaking Point An object will fracture if the stress exceeds the breaking point. The ratio of maximum load to the original cross-sectional area is called tensile strength.

10. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1010

11. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1011 The ultimate strength of a material is the maximum stress that it can withstand before breaking. Ultimate Strength Materials support compressive stress better than tensile stress

12. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1012 An acrobat of mass 55 kg is going to hang by her teeth from a steel wire and she does not want the wire to stretch beyond its elastic limit. The elastic limit for the wire is 2.5  10 8 Pa. What is the minimum diameter the wire should have to support her? Want

13. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1013 Different Representations Original equation Fractional change Change in length New length

14. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1014 Shear Deformations A shear deformation occurs when two forces are applied on opposite surfaces of an object.

15. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1015 Hooke’s law (stress  strain) for shear deformations is Define: where S is the shear modulus Stress and Strain

16. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1016 Example (text problem 10.25): The upper surface of a cube of gelatin, 5.0 cm on a side, is displaced by 0.64 cm by a tangential force. The shear modulus of the gelatin is 940 Pa. What is the magnitude of the tangential force? F F From Hooke’s Law:

17. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1017 An object completely submerged in a fluid will be squeezed on all sides. The result is a volume strain; Volume Deformations

18. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1018 For a volume deformation, Hooke’s Law is (stress  strain): where B is called the bulk modulus. The bulk modulus is a measure of how easy a material is to compress. Volume Deformations

19. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1019 An anchor, made of cast iron of bulk modulus 60.0  10 9 Pa and a volume of 0.230 m 3, is lowered over the side of a ship to the bottom of the harbor where the pressure is greater than sea level pressure by 1.75  10 6 Pa. Find the change in the volume of the anchor.

20. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1020 Examples I-beam Arch - Keystone Flying Buttress

21. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1021 Deformations Summary Table Bulk Modulus (B) Shear modulus (S)Young’s modulus (Y) Constant of proportionality Fractional change in volume Ratio of the relative displacement to the separation of the two parallel surfaces Fractional change in length Strain PressureShear force divided by the area of the surface on which it acts Force per unit cross-sectional area Stress Volume Shear Tensile or compressive

22. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1022 Simple Harmonic Motion Simple harmonic motion (SHM) occurs when the restoring force (the force directed toward a stable equilibrium point) is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium.

23. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1023 Characteristics of SHM Repetitive motion through a central equilibrium point. Symmetry of maximum displacement. Period of each cycle is constant. Force causing the motion is directed toward the equilibrium point (minus sign). F directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium. Acceleration = - ω 2 x Displacement

24. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1024 The motion of a mass on a spring is an example of SHM. The restoring force is F =  kx. x Equilibrium position x y The Spring

25. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1025 Assuming the table is frictionless: Also, Equation of Motion & Energy Classic form for SHM

26. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1026 Spring Potential Energy

27. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1027 At the equilibrium point x = 0 so a = 0 too. When the stretch is a maximum, a will be a maximum too. The velocity at the end points will be zero, and it is a maximum at the equilibrium point. Simple Harmonic Motion

28. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1028

29. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1029 What About Gravity? When a mass-spring system is oriented vertically, it will exhibit SHM with the same period and frequency as a horizontally placed system. The effect of gravity is cancelled out.

30. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1030 Spring Compensates for Gravity

31. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1031 Representing Simple Harmonic Motion

32. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1032 A simple harmonic oscillator can be described mathematically by: Or by: where A is the amplitude of the motion, the maximum displacement from equilibrium, A  = v max, and A  2 = a max.

33. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1033 Linear Motion - Circular Functions

34. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1034 Projection of Circular Motion

35. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1035 The period of oscillation is where  is the angular frequency of the oscillations, k is the spring constant and m is the mass of the block. The Period and the Angular Frequency

36. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1036 The period of oscillation of an object in an ideal mass-spring system is 0.50 sec and the amplitude is 5.0 cm. What is the speed at the equilibrium point? At equilibrium x = 0: Since E = constant, at equilibrium (x = 0) the KE must be a maximum. Here v = v max = A .

37. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1037 The amplitude A is given, but  is not. Example continued:

38. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1038 The diaphragm of a speaker has a mass of 50.0 g and responds to a signal of 2.0 kHz by moving back and forth with an amplitude of 1.8  10  4 m at that frequency. (a) What is the maximum force acting on the diaphragm? The value is F max =1400 N.

39. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1039 (b) What is the mechanical energy of the diaphragm? Since mechanical energy is conserved, E = K max = U max. The value of k is unknown so use K max. The value is K max = 0.13 J. Example continued:

40. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1040 Example (text problem 10.47): The displacement of an object in SHM is given by: What is the frequency of the oscillations? Comparing to y(t) = A sin  t gives A = 8.00 cm and  = 1.57 rads/sec. The frequency is:

41. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1041 Other quantities can also be determined: The period of the motion is Example continued:

42. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1042 The Pendulum A simple pendulum is constructed by attaching a mass to a thin rod or a light string. We will also assume that the amplitude of the oscillations is small.

43. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1043 The pendulum is best described using polar coordinates. The origin is at the pivot point. The coordinates are (r, φ). The r-coordinate points from the origin along the rod. The φ- coordinate is perpendicualr to the rod and is positive in the counterclock wise direction.

44. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1044 Apply Newton’s 2 nd Law to the pendulum bob. If we assume that φ <<1 rad, then sin φ  φ and cos φ  1, the angular frequency of oscillations is then: The period of oscillations is

45. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1045 Example (text problem 10.60): A clock has a pendulum that performs one full swing every 1.0 sec. The object at the end of the string weighs 10.0 N. What is the length of the pendulum? Solving for L:

46. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1046 The gravitational potential energy of a pendulum is U = mgy. Taking y = 0 at the lowest point of the swing, show that y = L(1-cos  ).  L y=0 L Lcos 

47. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1047 A physical pendulum is any rigid object that is free to oscillate about some fixed axis. The period of oscillation of a physical pendulum is not necessarily the same as that of a simple pendulum. The Physical Pendulum

48. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1048 http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBASE/pendp.html The Physical Pendulum

49. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1049 Damped Oscillations When dissipative forces such as friction are not negligible, the amplitude of oscillations will decrease with time. The oscillations are damped.

50. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1050 Graphical representations of damped oscillations:

51. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1051  Overdamped: The system returns to equilibrium without oscillating. Larger values of the damping the return to equilibrium slower.  Critically damped : The system returns to equilibrium as quickly as possible without oscillating. This is often desired for the damping of systems such as doors.  Underdamped : The system oscillates (with a slightly different frequency than the undamped case) with the amplitude gradually decreasing to zero. Source: Damping @ Wikipedia Damped Oscillations

52. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1052 Damped Oscillations The larger the damping the more difficult it is to assign a frequency to the oscillation.

53. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1053 Forced Oscillations and Resonance A force can be applied periodically to a damped oscillator (a forced oscillation). When the force is applied at the natural frequency of the system, the amplitude of the oscillations will be a maximum. This condition is called resonance.

54. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1054 Tacoma Narrows Bridge Nov. 7, 1940

55. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1055 Tacoma Narrows Bridge Nov. 7, 1940

56. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1056 The first Tacoma Narrows Bridge opened to traffic on July 1, 1940. It collapsed four months later on November 7, 1940, at 11:00 AM (Pacific time) due to a physical phenomenon known as aeroelastic flutter caused by a 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) wind. The bridge collapse had lasting effects on science and engineering. In many undergraduate physics texts the event is presented as an example of elementary forced resonance with the wind providing an external periodic frequency that matched the natural structural frequency (even though the real cause of the bridge's failure was aeroelastic flutter[1]). Its failure also boosted research in the field of bridge aerodynamics/ aeroelastics which have themselves influenced the designs of all the world's great long-span bridges built since 1940. - Wikipedia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mclp9QmCGs Tacoma Narrows Bridge

57. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1057 Chapter 10: Elasticity & Oscillations Elastic deformations of solids Hooke's law for tensile and compressive forces Beyond Hooke's law Shear and volume deformations Simple harmonic motion The period and frequency for SHM Graphical analysis of SHM The pendulum Damped oscillations Forced oscillations and resonance

58. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1058 Extra

59. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1059 Aeroelasticity is the science which studies the interactions among inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces. It was defined by Arthur Collar in 1947 as "the study of the mutual interaction that takes place within the triangle of the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces acting on structural members exposed to an airstream, and the influence of this study on design." Aeroelasticity

60. MFMcGraw-PHY1401Chap 10d - Elas & Vibrations - Revised 7-12-1060 Flutter Flutter is a self-feeding and potentially destructive vibration where aerodynamic forces on an object couple with a structure's natural mode of vibration to produce rapid periodic motion. Flutter can occur in any object within a strong fluid flow, under the conditions that a positive feedback occurs between the structure's natural vibration and the aerodynamic forces. That is, that the vibrational movement of the object increases an aerodynamic load which in turn drives the object to move further. If the energy during the period of aerodynamic excitation is larger than the natural damping of the system, the level of vibration will increase, resulting in self-exciting oscillation. The vibration levels can thus build up and are only limited when the aerodynamic or mechanical damping of the object match the energy input, this often results in large amplitudes and can lead to rapid failure. Because of this, structures exposed to aerodynamic forces - including wings, aerofoils, but also chimneys and bridges - are designed carefully within known parameters to avoid flutter. It is however not always a destructive force; recent progress has been made in small scale (table top) wind generators for underserved communities in developing countries, designed specifically to take advantage of this effect. In complex structures where both the aerodynamics and the mechanical properties of the structure are not fully understood flutter can only be discounted through detailed testing. Even changing the mass distribution of an aircraft or the stiffness of one component can induce flutter in an apparently unrelated aerodynamic component. At its mildest this can appear as a "buzz" in the aircraft structure, but at its most violent it can develop uncontrollably with great speed and cause serious damage to or the destruction of the aircraft. In some cases, automatic control systems have been demonstrated to help prevent or limit flutter related structural vibration. Flutter can also occur on structures other than aircraft. One famous example of flutter phenomena is the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge. Aeroelastic Flutter