1. Copyright, 1995-2002 1 Invitation to Research THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH Roger Clarke, Xamax Consultancy, Canberra Visiting Professor, CSIS, Uni of Hong Kong Visiting Fellow, Australian National University http://www.anu.edu.au/people/Roger.Clarke/......Res /20-SciApp.ppt ebs, 16-20 January 2003

2. Copyright, 1995-2002 2 The Defining Characteristic of Science a theory is scientific iff it generates inferences that are refutable by reference to the real world cf.a-scientific theories in religion and politics e.g.through grace, a believers soul is saved only a virtuous ruler can survive

3. Copyright, 1995-2002 3 The Conventional Scientific Research Process - 1 of 6

4. Copyright, 1995-2002 4 The Conventional Scientific Research Process - 2 of 6

5. Copyright, 1995-2002 5 The Conventional Scientific Research Process - 3 of 6

6. Copyright, 1995-2002 6 The Conventional Scientific Research Process - 4 of 6

7. Copyright, 1995-2002 7 The Conventional Scientific Research Process - 5 of 6

8. Copyright, 1995-2002 8 The Conventional Scientific Research Process - 6 of 6

9. Copyright, 1995-2002 9 Conventional, Scientific Research Key Features Investigates Research Questions within a Domain Is driven by theories that: are founded on axioms comprise trees of deductive inference generate refutable Hypotheses Is designed to test the Hypotheses Exercises control over confounding variables Leads to theory extension or refinement

10. Copyright, 1995-2002 10 Conventional Scientific Research Meta-Physical Assumptions There is a Real World The phenomena in that Real World are stable Data gathered by observing the Real World are factual, truthful and unambiguous The domain of study is not affected by either the research, or the researcher The language in which Theory is expressed is unambiguous, and contains no value judgements

11. Copyright, 1995-2002 11 Conventional Scientific Research Data Assumptions Data must be Objective Objective means relatively proximate to Truth Subjective means relatively distant from Truth The notion of Objectivity presumes: the existence of Truth its accessibility by humans Objective Data is Quantified Data, i.e. expressed in terms that place it on a scale

12. Copyright, 1995-2002 12 Conventional Scientific Research Process Assumptions Research projects are driven by Theories Theories comprise Axioms that are unchanging Inferences from Theory are operationalised as explicit and unambiguous Hypotheses Results from empirical tests are replicable Most results confirm or articulate the Theory Gradually, Anomalies accumulate A more general Theory is formulated, the Anomalies are accommodated, and a Paradigm Shift occurs

13. Copyright, 1995-2002 13 Conventional Scientific Research Corollaries Rigour is paramount, in order to build theory Because the primary purpose is Rigour, Relevance has to be a secondary consideration Unstable phenomena are highly inconvenient Perturbable phenomena are too Anomaly accumulation should be gradual

14. Copyright, 1995-2002 14 Conventional Scientific Research Corollaries A Theory may draw on Reference Disciplines, but it relates to Phenomena in a particular Domain, and is intended to be understood within a particular Discipline Testing of Ad hoc Inferences and Hypotheses (i.e. those that are not derived from some more or less formally expressed Theory) does not constitute Scientific Research