1. Employment, Labor, & Wages
A nation’s unemployment rate is an important indicator of the health of the economy.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics polls a sample of the population to determine how many people are employed and unemployed.
The unemployment rate is the percentage of the nation’s labor force that is unemployed.
The unemployment rate is only a national average. It does not reflect regional economic trends. But local statistics can be obtained from state labor departments.

2. Employment Unemployment
Economists define the labor force as all nonmilitary people who are employed or unemployed.
Employment
People are considered employed if they are 16 years or older and meet at least one of the following:
they worked a least one hour for pay within the last week; or
they worked 15 or more hours without pay in a family business; or
they held jobs but did not work due to illness, vacations, labor disputes, or bad weather.
Unemployment
People are counted as unemployed if they are 16 years or older, not institutionalized, not currently working, and meet one of the following criteria:
they are temporarily laid off from their jobs
they will be reporting to new jobs within 30 days
they are not working but have looked for work within the last 4 weeks.

3. Types of Unemployment
Frictional Unemployment--Occurs when people change jobs, get laid off from their current jobs, take some time to find the right job after they finish their schooling, or take time off from working for a variety of other reasons
Structural Unemployment-- Occurs when workers' skills do not match the jobs that are available. Technological advances are one cause of structural unemployment
Seasonal Unemployment—0ccurs when industries slow or shut down for a season or make seasonal shifts in their production schedules
Cyclical Unemployment--Unemployment that rises during economic downturns and falls when the economy improves

4. “Full” Employment
Full employment is the level of employment reached when there is no cyclical unemployment
Economists generally agree that in an economy that is working properly, an unemployment rate of around 4.5% is normal.
Sometimes people are underemployed, that is working a job for which they are over-qualified, or working part-time when they desire full-time work. They are not counted as “unemployed.”
Discouraged workers are people who want a job, but have given up looking for one.
U-6 Unemployment rate counts discouraged workers and those underemployed, more accurate

5. Section 1 Review
Unemployment that occurs when workers’ skills do not match the jobs that are available is known as
(a) frictional unemployment.
(b) structural unemployment.
(c) seasonal unemployment.
(d) cyclical unemployment.
2. The unemployment rate
(a) is the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed.
(b) is the number of people who are unemployed.
(c) includes only discouraged workers.
(d) is the percentage of the labor force that is underemployed.

6. Labor Unions
A labor union is an organization of workers that tries to improve working conditions, wages, and benefits for its members.
The nation’s first unions were comprised of skilled workers. After the Civil War, the labor force became more unified.
2 types of unions developed—the trade union and the industrial union.
Unions used strikes, pickets, and boycotts to help members get better pay, hours, & job security.
Employers resisted with lockouts, firings, and even setting up company unions.
Now, less than 14 percent of U.S. workers belong to a labor union.

7. How Unions Rose to Power
Key Events in the U.S. Labor Movement
Year
Event
The union movement took shape over the course of more than a century.
The 1935 National Labor Relations Act, also known as the Wagner Act, gave workers the right to organize and required companies to bargain in good faith with unions
Even so, courts usually treat unions with hostility.
1869
Knights of Labor founded
1911
Fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in New York kills 146, spurring action on workplace safety
1932
Norris-La Guardia Act outlaws “yellow dog” contracts, gives other protection to unions
1935
Wagner Act gives workers rights to organize
1938
AFL splinter group becomes the independent Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), headed by John L. Lewis
1955
AFL and CIO merge to create AFL-CIO
1970s
Rise in anti-union measures by employers
1990s
Increase in public-sector unions, including teaching assistants at some universities

8. Why Union Membership Declined
“Right to Work” Laws--The Taft-Hartley Act (1947) allowed states to pass right-to-work laws. These laws ban mandatory union membership at the workplace. Michigan does NOT have one of these—yet. Under Taft-Hartley, the President can enforce an 80-day delay to strikes that could hurt national health or safety (Clinton, 1997 Pilots Strike)
Economic Trends--Unions have traditionally been strongest in the manufacturing sector, representing blue-collar workers. These jobs have been declining as the economy becomes more service-oriented.
Fulfillment of Union Goals--With the government setting standards for workplace safety, and with more benefits being provided by both private and government sources, union membership has decreased because their goals have been fulfilled.
New Workers--- Many new workers have little allegiance to unions. Rising Conservatism in the southern United States.

9. Types of Union Workplaces
A closed shop hires only union members. This type of workplace is now illegal.
A union shop will hire nonunion members but requires them to join the union within a certain period of time.
An agency shop will hire nonunion workers and does not require them to join the union in order to keep their jobs. However, nonunion workers must pay union dues or similar fees, and they are covered by the union contract. (Teachers at DHS)

10. Collective Bargaining
Collective bargaining is the process in which union and company representatives meet to negotiate a new labor contract
Wages and Benefits
The union negotiates on behalf of all members for wage rates, overtime rates, planned raises, and benefits.
Working Conditions
Safety, comfort, worker responsibilities, and other workplace issues are negotiated and written into the final contract.
Job Security
One of the union’s primary goals is to secure its members’ jobs. The contract spells out the conditions under which a worker may be fired.

11. Labor Strikes and Settlements
If no agreement is met between the union and the company, the union may ask its members to vote on a strike, an organized work stoppage intended to force an employer to address union demands. Strikes can be harmful to both the union members and the firm.
Mediation
To avoid the economic losses of a strike, a third party is sometimes called in to settle the dispute. Mediation is a settlement technique in which a neutral mediator meets with both sides to try and find an acceptable solution for both sides.
Arbitration
If mediation fails, talks may go into arbitration, a settlement technique in which a third party reviews the case and imposes a decision that is legally binding for both sides.

12. Who May NOT Strike?
Generally, teachers, police officers, and firefighters may not strike, since they are public employees.
If workers in vital industries strike, the government can seek injunctions in court, which order workers back to work. The government can also seize vital industries (coal mines, etc).
PATCO, 1981: 1935 Wagner Act also says you can permanently replace striking workers. See debate articles. In 1981, President Reagan fired the strikers and had PATCO decertified.

13. Section Review 1. Which of the following is not a goal of unions?
(a) increase job security
(b) take control of company ownership
(c) higher wages for employees
(d) increase worker benefits
2. What has been the pattern of union membership in recent years?
(a) growth of private sector union membership only
(b) decline of overall union membership
(c) steady increase of overall membership
(d) decline of public sector union membership only

14. Supply & Demand in the Labor Market
Labor Demand
The higher the wage rate, the smaller the quantity of labor demanded by firms and government.
Labor Supply
As wages increase, the quantity of labor supplied also increases.
Equilibrium Wage
The wage rate that produces neither an excess supply of workers nor an excess demand for workers in the labor market is called the equilibrium wage.

15. Wage Determination
The traditional theory of wage determination says that supply and demand determine an equilibrium wage rate.
The theory of Negotiated Wages uses organized labor’s bargaining strength to help explain wage differentials from the “market clearing price”
According to the the Signaling Theory, employers are more willing to pay for those people with certain indicators of superior ability.
Wages vary according to workers’ skill levels/education. They can also vary regionally; areas with high costs of living have higher wages and vice versa. People sometimes accept lower wages if the location of the job is attractive to them (and vice versa there too).

16. Jobs are often categorized into the following 4 groups:
Unskilled Labor--requires no specialized skills, education, or training. Examples: waiters, messengers, janitors
Semi-Skilled Labor--requires minimal specialized skills and education. Example: fork-lift operator
Skilled Labor--requires specialized skills and training. Examples: auto mechanics, plumbers
Professional Labor--demands advanced skills and education. Examples: lawyers, doctors, teachers

17. Laws Against Wage Discrimination
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 declared that male and female employees in the same workplace performing the same job had to receive equal pay.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbids job discrimination on the basis of race, sex, color, religion, or nationality.
Despite these protections, American women today earn about 75 percent of what men earn. Racial minorities tend to earn lower pay than whites.
Median Earnings for U.S. Workers, by Sex and Ethnicity, 1998
Source: U.S. Census Bureau
Median annual earnings
$10,000
$20,000
$30,000
Hispanic women
$10,862
African American women
$13,137
White women
$14,617
Hispanic men
$17,257
African American men
$19,321
White men
$27,646

18. Why Less Pay for Women?
The average woman has less experience and education to bring to the working world than the average male (changing)
Some higher paying jobs have more males (glass ceilings, “Old Boys Networks”)
Women take time off to have children.
In perspective, however, more than half of professional jobs go to women—so they’re doing ok

19. Section 2 Review 1. The higher the wage rate
(a) the lower the quantity of labor supplied.
(b) the higher the quantity of labor supplied.
(c) the lower the quantity of labor demanded.
(d) the higher the number of people in the labor force.
2. Which of the following falls in the category of skilled worker?
(a) doctor
(b) waiter/waitress
(c) auto mechanic
(d) teacher

20. Labor Market Trends Fewer Goods, More Services A Changing Economy
Overall, the United States is shifting from a manufacturing economy to a service economy. As service jobs increase, the nation is losing manufacturing jobs.
Demand for skilled labor is rising, and the supply of skilled workers is increasing to meet the demand.
A Changing Economy
The economy of the United States has transformed from a mainly agricultural economy in the 1800s, to an industrial giant in the 1900s.
The computer chip has revolutionized the economy since its introduction in the later 1900s.

21. Labor Force Trends College Graduates at Work
The learning effect is the theory that education increases productivity and results in higher wages.
The screening effect theory suggests that the completion of college indicates to employers that a job applicant is intelligent and hard-working.
Women at Work
Overall, the number of women in the work force has increased from about 38 percent of all women in 1960 to about 60 percent of all women in 1997.

22. Median annual earnings
Potential earnings increase with increased educational attainment.
Education and Income, 1998
Women
Men
$70,000
$60,000
$50,000
$40,000
$30,000
$20,000
$10,000
Median annual earnings
Source: U.S. Census Bureau
Education level
Master’s degree
Doctorate degree
Some college, no degree
Associate degree
Bachelor’s degree
Less than 9th grade
9th to 12th grade
(no diploma)
High school graduate
(includes GED)

23. Temporary Unemployment
Contingent employment is temporary or part-time employment
Temporary employees offer firms some of the following benefits:
Flexible work arrangements.
Easy discharge due to the lack of severance pay for temporary workers.
Temporary workers are often paid less and receive fewer benefits than their full-time counterparts.
Some employees prefer temporary arrangements.

24. Trends in Wages and Benefits
Earnings Up for Some, Down for Others
Earnings for college graduates have increased, while earnings for workers without college degrees have decreased.
The Real Minimum wage has risen over time.
Average weekly earnings in the United States decreased from $275 in 1980 to $261 in 1997, as measured in inflation-adjusted dollars.
Cost of Benefits Rises
Benefits now make up about 28 percent of total compensation in the economy.
For employers, rising benefits costs raise the cost of doing business and decrease profits. Many firms are turning to contingent employment to curb benefits costs.

25. Section Review
1. How have the earnings of U.S. workers changed over the last 20 years?
(a) Average wages of all workers have gone up.
(b) Average wages of all workers have gone down.
(c) Average wages of college graduates have gone up.
(d) Average wages of non-college graduates only have gone up.
2. Which of the following is not a reason firms hire temporary workers?
(a) Temporary workers sometimes receive lower wages and benefits.
(b) Some employees prefer temporary working conditions.
(c) Demand for temporary workers is low.
(d) Temporary workers usually have more flexible working arrangements.