1. Ultrasonic Cavitation and Piezonuclear Reactions
Cardone Fabio1, Cherubini Giovanni3, Mignani Roberto2, 4, Perconti Walter5, Pessa Eliano6, Petrucci Andrea1, 4, Rosetto Francesca3, Spera Guido7 1Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati (ISMN — CNR) 2GNFM, Istituto Nazionale di Alta Matematica “F.Severi” 3ARPA Radiation Laboratories 4Dipartimento di Fisica “E.Amaldi” , Università degli Studi “Roma Tre” 5Climate and Applied Meteorology, ISPRA, 6Centro Interdipartimentale di Scienze Cognitive, Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy 7CRA - IS.Pa.Ve., Chemical Section
SOPO2012
8th International Symposium on Cavitation
Singapore, 13th - 16th August 2012

2. Piezonuclear Reactions: Nuclear Reactions induced by Pressure
Pressure suitably exerted on medium or heavy weight stable nuclides generates nuclear reactions of new type with clear and reproducible emission of neutrons.
What does pressure suitably excerted mean?
Piezonuclear Reactions and Deformed Special Relativity
Piezonuclear Reactions are predicted by the phenomenological theory called Deformed Special Relativity (DSR) (F. Cardone, R. Mignani) 1
DSR states that piezonuclear reactions are triggered if in a experiment involving - medium or heavy weight stable nuclides one succeeds in concentrating an amount of energy E greater than GeV in a microscopical region of space V smaller than a threshold volume V and in an interval of time t shorter than a threshold interval t0

3. Compressing mechanism
Concentrate E > GeV
in a microscopical space V < V0
in an interval of time t < t0
How do we translate these conditions
into experiment ?
Compressing mechanism
A compressing mechanism is needed
capable of
concentrating and hence amplifying
(E > GeV) energy density
by squeezing heavy or medium weight
stable nuclides
into a decreasing volume (V < V0)
Catastrophic collapse
followed by
a sudden, quick and catastrophic mechanism
capable of a further compression
that releases instantaneously (t < t0)
the loaded energy onto the entrapped nuclides

4. Cavitation as source of compression and catastrophic collapse
If pressure excerted on a liquid falls below the liquid vapour pressure, vapour bubbles form, conversely a rapid increase of pressure brings about a violent collapse of these bubbles.
These phenomena are known to pit metals and are source of corrosion.
The pitted surface of metals indicates that the collapse of bubbles induced by a sudden increase of pressure manages to concentrate in small volumes a great amount of energy, i.e. to create particularly high energy density conditions.

5. Ultrasonic Cavitation experiments and their piezonuclear evidences

6. First set of experiments (1999)
Cavitation of water - concentrations of elements Could cavitation of water change the concentration of the chemical elements contained in it?
liquid: 100 ml bidistilled deionised H2O in optical flint glass
ultrasound device: with cooled transducers and sonotrode and stepped shaped titanium horn
frequency and power: 20 kHz 630 W
time: 210 minutes
analyses of the concentration of elements (Z= 1 to 92) in water before and after cavitation by
mass atomic absorption
cyclotron spectrometry (ICR-ion cyclotron resonance)
mass spectrometry
analyses of the vacuum chamber of these instruments
analyses of possible contributions to concentration changes due to impurities
from sonotrode tip, flint glass, dry residue of water samples
Comparison of concentrations before and after cavitation
decrease of light elements and increase of heavy ones,
uranium in particular

7. Second set of experiments (2001)
Cavitation of water - concentrations of heavy elements Could cavitation bring about variations of the concentration of chemical elements contained in it?
liquid: 30 ml bidistilled deionised H2O in pyrex vessel
ultrasound device: not cooled transducers and stepped shaped aluminium horn
frequency and power: 20 kHz 300 W
time: 4 intervals of 10 munites of cavitation with cooling intervals of 15 minutes between any two of them
analyses of the concentration of elements (A= 210 to 270 amu) in water before (blank) and after cavitation plus analyses of the background (content of the vacuum chamber)
Comparison of concentrations before and after cavitation
Increase in the mass range
Increase and then decrease in the mass range (radionuclides)

8. Third set of experiments (2002)
Cavitation of water - concentrations of radionuclides Search for artificial radionuclides
liquid: 300 ml of bidistilled deionised H2O in pyrex beaker
ultrasound device: not cooled transducers and stepped shaped aluminium horn
frequency and power: 20 kHz 100 W
time: intervals of 15 munites of cavitation followed by cooling intervals of 15 minutes
analyses of the concentration of elements (90 to 150 and 200 to 255 amu) in water before (blank), after and during cavitation by
peristaltic pump that sucked water into an
Inducted Coupled Plasma (ICP) Mass Spectrometer (MS) (9000 °C)
analyses of noise (vacuum chamber)
analyses scanning times: 10 sec and 150 sec
Analysis of the concentrations during cavitation
the ICP-MS identified a mass of amu
whose concentration cycled: appearance, increase, decrease, disappearance.
Interpeted as a radionuclide with t1/2=12s Europium 138

9. To: Cavitation of solutions of elements and search for neutrons
From: cavitation of bidistilled deionised water and search for changes of concentration
To:
Cavitation of solutions of elements
and
search for neutrons

10. Neutrons only from Iron solutions after 40 minutes - no gamma rays
Fourth set of experiments (2005)
Cavitation of solutions - neutron search - bubble detectors Does the variation of concentration of elements in cavitation mean also emission of neutrons and gamma rays ?
liquid: ml of 1 ppm solutions of Lithium, Aluminium, Iron (LiCl, AlCl3, FeCl3, Fe(NO)3) in bidistilled deionised H2O in bottles of Schott Duran Glass
ultrasound device: modified ultrasonic plastic welder with transducers and sonotrode cooled by cold compressed air and a steel conical frustum as horn
frequency and power: 20 kHz 100 W
time: 90 minutes of continuous cavitation
Neutrons only from Iron solutions after 40 minutes - no gamma rays

11. Fifth set of experiments (2006)
Cavitation of solutions - neutron search - bubble detectors Does the variation of concentration of elements in cavitation mean also emission of neutrons and gamma?
liquid: 250 ml of 1 ppm, 10 ppm solutions of Iron (FeCl3, Fe(NO)3) in bidistilled deionised H2O in bottles of Schott Duran Glass
ultrasound device: modified ultrasonic plastic welder with transducers and sonotrode cooled by cold compressed air and a steel conical frustum as horn
frequency and power: 20 kHz 100 W and 130 W
time: 90 minutes of continuous cavitation
Different neutron doses and dose rates for different concentrations of iron and different ultrasound powers no gamma rays

12. Different neutron doses and dose rates for different concentrations and different ultrasound powers
Graph of graphs
In each single graph there is time on the horizontal axis and neutron dose (nSv) on the vertical axis.
On the compound graph we have amplitude or power on the horizontal axis and concentration on the vertical axis.

13. Cavitation of solutions - neutron search - track detectors
Fifth set of experiments (2006)
Cavitation of solutions - neutron search - track detectors
liquid: 250 ml of 10 ppm solutions of Iron (FeCl3) in bidistilled deionised H2O in bottles of Schott Duran Glass
frequency and power: 20 kHz 130 W
time: 90 minutes of continuous cavitation
CR39 detectors and bubble detectors
CR39 detectors Neutron tracks from nuclear reactor and from cavitation of iron solution

14. Sixth set of experiments (2007)
Cavitation of solutions - neutron search - BF3
liquid: 250 ml of 1000 ppm solutions of Iron (FeCl3) in bidistilled deionised H2O in bottles of Schott Duran Glass
frequency and power: 20 kHz 113 W
time: 90 minutes of continuous cavitation plus 90 with ultrasound off
Bursts of neutrons detected by the Boron Trifluoride detector

15. Burst of neutrons emitted by the solution of iron during cavitation
Time coincidence of bursts of neutrons registered by BF3 and bubble detector

16. From liquids to solids Experimental evidences
Cavitation is the experimental mean in order to bring about piezonuclear reactions
During bubble collapse iron atoms, entrapped in the liquid/vapour (gas) interface, get accelerated towards each other
Basic requirements: the presence of micro-cavities (bubbles) that transform an ultrasonic wave into a shock wave and presence of iron
Solids, like iron-rich rocks or cast iron, do contain micro-cavities as well
Could we imagine that the same processes that happen during cavitation of liquids, as we have seen so far, might take place if we compressed solids?
Experimental evidences
Compression by ultrasounds
of iron-rich rocks (Granite, Basalt) or
of steel bars (that contain micro-cavities)
produce cavitation that generates piezonuclear reactions
with emissions of
bursts of neutrons, transmutations and emission of alpha particles
without any gamma rays
In both the liquid and solid states one might envisage
a certain typical time, tm, for the migration of a molecule from one position
within the structure of the substance to a neighboring position; alternatively
one might consider this typical time as characterizing the migration of a “hole”
or vacancy from one position to another within the structure. Then if the
typical time, t, associated with the applied force is small compared with tm, the
substance will not be capable of permanent deformation during that process
and will exhibit elasticity rather than fluidity. On the other hand if t tm the
material will exhibit fluidity. Thus, though the conclusion is overly simplistic,
one can characterize a solid as having a large tm and a liquid as having a small
tm relative to the order of magnitude of the typical time, t, of the applied
force.
ILLUSTRATION OF
TENSILE STRENGTH
Frenkel (1955) illustrates the potential tensile strength of a pure liquid by means
of a simple, but instructive calculation. Consider two molecules separated by
a variable distance s. The typical potential energy, Φ, associated with the
intermolecular forces has the form shown in Figure 1.3. Equilibrium occurs at
the separation, xo, typically of the order of 10−10m. The attractive force, F,
between the molecules is equal to ∂Φ/∂x and is a maximum at some distance,
x1, where typically x1/xo is of the order of 1.1 or 1.2. In a bulk liquid or solid
this would correspond to a fractional volumetric expansion, ΔV/Vo, of about
one-third. Consequently the application of a constant tensile stress equal to that
Figure 1.3: Intermolecular potential.
pertinent at x1 would completely rupture the liquid or solid since for x > x1 the
attractive force is insufficient to counteract that tensile force. In fact, liquids
and solids have compressibility moduli, κ, which are usually in the range of 1010
to 1011 kg/m s2 and since the pressure, p = −κ(ΔV/Vo), it follows that the
typical pressure that will rupture a liquid, pT , is −3×109 to −3×1010 kg/m s2.
In other words, we estimate on this basis that liquids or solids should be able to
withstand tensile stresses of 3 × 104 to 3 × 105 atmospheres! In practice solids
do not reach these limits (the rupture stress is usually about 100 times less)
because of stress concentrations; that is to say, the actual stress encountered at
certain points can achieve the large values quoted above at certain points even
when the overall or globally averaged stress is still 100 times smaller. In liquids
the large theoretical values of the tensile strength defy all practical experience;
this discrepancy must be addressed.

17. Conclusions and remarks
It exists cavitation and it exists Nuclear Cavitation
E > GeV , V < V0 , t < t0
crucial dimensions and crucial reciprocal position of the sonotrode and the cavitation chamber (no ultrasonic cleaners)
no emission of neutrons before 40 minutes (unless you use solids)
THESE neutrons are difficult to be measured
anisotropic bursts are very hard to be detected (by active detectors above all)
bubble detectors like the ones we used (called DEFENDERS) are no more available from BTI and the available ones called (BD) are not sensitive enough for neutron emission from liquids, but they are good for neutron emisson from solids
alpha emissions are easier to be detected
but not in liquids because alpha particles cannot escape from the cavitation chamber
solids have to be used

18. Thank you very much for your attention!

19. Cavitation as source of compression and catastrophic collapse
If pressure excerted on a liquid falls below the liquid vapour pressure, vapour bubbles form, conversely a rapid increase of pressure brings about a violent collapse of these bubbles.
These phenomena are known to pit metals and are source of corrosion.
The pitted surface of metals indicated that the collapse of bubbles induced by a sudden increase of pressure managed to concentrate in small volumes a great amount of energy, i.e. to create particularly high energy density conditions.
If pressure excerted on a liquid falls below the liquid vapour pressure, vapour bubbles form, conversely a rapid increase of pressure brings about a violent collapse of these bubbles.
These phenomena are known to pit metals and are source of corrosion.
The pitted surface of metals indicated that the collapse of bubbles induced by a sudden increase of pressure managed to concentrate in small volumes a great amount of energy, i.e. to create particularly high energy density conditions.
WARNING: Piezonuclear reactions are NOT Sonofusion
Sonofusion
theory: sonofusion is thermonuclear fusion in a tiny region of space inside the collapsing bubble. Coulomb barrier is to be overcome
Piezonuclear reactions
theory: Piezonuclear reactions have neither to do with fusion nor with fission. They are based on the concept of Local Lorentz Invariance breakdown space-time deformation. No Coulomb barrier
phenomenology: sonofusion treats the walls of the bubble as a impermeable membrane.The bubble is a piston. Nuclear fuel is contained in the bubble
phenomenology: the walls of the bubble are treated as a completely permeable membrane through which the content of the bubble can escape during collapse. Nuclear fuel is trapped in the wall of the bubble that behaves like an accelerator of heavy ions that are forcibly pushed against each other
experiment: sonofusion is aimed at producing deuterium-deuterium fusion,
experiment: The fuel of these reactions are basically all stable nuclides and in particular those whose binding energy per nucleon is, in absolute value, as close as possible to the maximum.

20. Further evidences from solids - ultrasound
Cylindrical Bars: 20 cm high, 2 cm of diameter
19 Watt transferred into the bar
1 hour of application of ultrasound

21. Further evidences from solids continuous compression
Compression by a servo-controlled press of specimens of granite and marble up brittle fracture

22. 367.5 GeV easily reachable by adding the mass energy of the nuclides
367.5 GeV is enormous from a microscopical point of view and still very big from a macroscopical one because of the Avogadro constant
100 J/s  6·1020 eV/s  6·1020 / NA  1·10-3 eV/s·atom
367.5 GeV easily reachable by adding the mass energy of the nuclides