1. Separation Principle

2. Controllers & Observers Plant Controller Observer Picture

3. Composite state model

4. Similarity Transformation

5. Controllability of Composite System Composite system cannot be controllable. (rows of zeros) Look at transfer function of composite system Poles and zeros

6. Stability Discussion K stabilizes “control system” L stabilizes “observer” Values of K and L are largely independent of each other Observer must be “more stable” than controller Separation Principle

7. Satellite Example

8. More Stability

9. Energy Storage & State componentEnergy/Power ResistorI 2 R=V 2 /R Capacitor, vV 2 /(2C) Inductor, iLI 2 /2 Friction elementBv 2 /2 Mass, vMv 2 /2 Spring, dxK(dx) 2 /2

10. Free Response and Energy Free response indicates how energy stored in the system “leaves” the system If x(t) goes to zero, then the energy initially stored in the system (kinetic, potential, inductors, capacitors) is dissipated in friction elements, resistors, or radiates to the ambient world

11. Forced Response and Energy The forced response shows how energy from the input function (and bias sources) enters the states

12. Stability and Energy Dissipation The conceptual (not literal) connection between energy stored in the states and whether or not it dissipates to zero in the free response, leads to a powerful test of stability associated with the name of Lyapunov. See Chapter 8: pps. 193, 198, 200, 209

13. Definitions The origin is stable if, for any given value of ε > 0, there is a value of δ(ε) > 0 such that if ||x(0)|| 0 (see Fig. 8.1 pg. 195). The origin is asymptotically stable if it is stable, and if there exists δ’ > 0 such that whenever ||x(0)|| < δ’ then lim t  ||x(t)|| = 0. Diagonal systems

14. Energy Functions & Lyapunov stability Lyapunov functions  energy functions Consider a mechanical system with no energy sources, consider any function built up from kinetic and potential energy of its components. This function does not increase as time passes. Consider an electrical system with no energy sources, consider any function built from the energy stored in the capacitors and inductors. This function does not increase as time passes.

15. 2 nd Method of Lyapunov Along every solution x(t) contained in Ω 1.If v(x(t)) is decreasing except at the origin, then the origin is asymptotically stable, and all initial conditions inside Ω produce trajectories that approach the origin; 2.If v(x(t)) is increasing except at the origin, then the origin is unstable.

16. Energy Functions for LTI systems v(x) = x T Px, P symmetric positive-definite. Choose real, symmetric, positive definite Q. Find, if possible, real, symmetric, positive definite P If successful, conclude stability. Approach generalizes to non-linear systems

17. Positive/Negative (semi-) definite matrices, x != 0 x T Qx > 0  positive definite x T Qx < 0  negative definite x T Qx >= 0  positive semi-definite x T Qx <=  negative semi-definite Symmetric  Q T =Q Real  every element of Q is real Q is positive definite if, for some orthogonal S, S T QS is –Diagonal, –Has non-zero, positive elements on the diagonal Diagonal matrix examples

18. Positive Definiteness A real symmetric matrix M is positive definite if and only if any one of the following conditions holds: –All eigenvalues of M are positive –There exists a nonsingular matrix N such that M = N T N

19. Connection between Q and P Q is any positive definite matrix and let Total energy dissipated is Now consider A T P+PA

20. A T P+PA=?

21. Solving Lyapunov Eqns A T P+PA=-Q –Given Q, A, find P –“vectorize” to get Mp=q –Solve for p –Reconstruct P from p –Solutions exist “if and only if” λ i + λ j ≠0 for eigenvalues of A, including when i = j.

22. Satellite Example Q cannot be totally arbitrary since q 2,2 must be 0. Can Q and P be positive definite?

23. Satellite Example Q cannot be positive definite since it has a negative EV.

24. With Feedback Any Q produces a P. Does pos-def Q produce pos-def P?

25. With Feedback Any Q produces a P. Does pos-def Q produce pos-def P?

26. With Feedback and Observer

27. Uncancelled pole-zero pairs CCF –Observable? OCF –Controllable? Subspaces –CO –Not C, O –Not O, C –Not O, Not C Controllable if input affects all state components directly or indirectly Observable if all state components affects output directly or indirectly

28. Example

29. Kalman Canonical form (1) Uncontrollable states can affect controllable states. Controllable states cannot affect uncontrollable states. Observable states can affect unobservable states. Unobservable states cannot affect observable states. Picture. Compute Transfer functions.

30. Kalman Canonical Form (2) Compute Transfer Function. Depends only on Observable and controllable portion. Hence lower degree polynomials.

31. Design via Similarity Transformations -- Picture

32. Signal Energy Example 7, pg. 202 Define signal energy Compute energy in free response due to x(0) P is solution to Lyapunov Eqn.

33. Optimal Control See Example 8, Pg 203 Introduce SVFB, need to choose K Define quadratic cost functional in terms of –Positive definite R –Positive semidefinite Q Substitute y=Cx, u=-Kx+u’ Substitute free response, with initial state x(0) Compare integrand with signal energy integrand, solve resulting Lyapunov eq.