1. 1 Waves and Vibrations

2. 2 Waves are everywhere in nature Sound waves, visible light waves, radio waves, microwaves, water waves, sine waves, telephone chord waves, stadium waves, earthquake waves, waves on a string, slinky waves

3. 3 What is a wave? a wave is a disturbance that travels through a medium from one location to another. a wave is the motion of a disturbance

4. What is a vibration? Vibration: in a general sense, anything that switches back and forth, to and fro, side to side, in and out, off and on, loud and soft, or up and down is vibrating. Vibrations and waves: the source of all waves is something that is vibrating. Waves are propagations of vibrations throughout space. 4

5. 5 Slinky Wave Let’s use a slinky wave as an example. When the slinky is stretched from end to end and is held at rest, it assumes a natural position known as the equilibrium or rest position. To introduce a wave here we must first create a disturbance. We must move a particle away from its rest position.

6. 6 Slinky Wave One way to do this is to jerk the slinky forward the beginning of the slinky moves away from its equilibrium position and then back. the disturbance continues down the slinky. this disturbance that moves down the slinky is called a pulse. if we keep “pulsing” the slinky back and forth, we could get a repeating disturbance.

7. 7 Slinky Wave This disturbance would look something like this This type of wave is called a LONGITUDINAL wave. The pulse is transferred through the medium of the slinky, but the slinky itself does not actually move. It just displaces from its rest position and then returns to it. So what really is being transferred?

8. 8 Slinky Wave Energy is being transferred. The metal of the slinky is the MEDIUM in that transfers the energy pulse of the wave. The medium ends up in the same place as it started … it just gets disturbed and then returns to it rest position. The same can be seen with a stadium wave.

9. 9 Longitudinal Wave The wave we see here is a longitudinal wave. The medium particles vibrate parallel to the motion of the pulse. This is the same type of wave that we use to transfer sound. Can you figure out how?? show tuning fork demo

10. 10 Transverse waves A second type of wave is a transverse wave. We said in a longitudinal wave the pulse travels in a direction parallel to the disturbance. In a transverse wave the pulse travels perpendicular to the disturbance.

11. 11 Transverse Waves The differences between the two can be seen

12. 12 Transverse Waves Transverse waves occur when we wiggle the slinky back and forth. They also occur when the source disturbance follows a periodic motion. A spring or a pendulum can accomplish this. The wave formed here is a SINE wave. http://www.cleanvideosearch.com/media/action/yt/watc h?v=X-OCz9lIiY4 http://www.cleanvideosearch.com/media/action/yt/watc h?v=X-OCz9lIiY4

13. Transverse Waves 13

14. 14 Anatomy of a Wave Now we can begin to describe the anatomy of our waves. We will use a transverse wave to describe this since it is easier to see the pieces.

15. 15 Anatomy of a Wave In our wave here the dashed line represents the equilibrium position. Once the medium is disturbed, it moves away from this position and then returns to it

16. 16 Anatomy of a Wave The points A and F are called the CRESTS of the wave. This is the point where the wave exhibits the maximum amount of positive or upwards displacement crest

17. 17 Anatomy of a Wave The points D and I are called the TROUGHS of the wave. These are the points where the wave exhibits its maximum negative or downward displacement. trough

18. 18 Anatomy of a Wave The distance between the dashed line and point A is called the Amplitude of the wave.\ This is the maximum displacement that the wave moves away from its equilibrium. Amplitude

19. 19 Anatomy of a Wave The distance between two consecutive similar points (in this case two crests) is called the wavelength. This is the length of the wave pulse. Between what other points is can a wavelength be measured? wavelength

20. 20 Anatomy of a Wave What else can we determine? We know that things that repeat have a frequency and a period. How could we find a frequency and a period of a wave?

21. 21 Wave frequency We know that frequency measure how often something happens over a certain amount of time. We can measure how many times a pulse passes a fixed point over a given amount of time, and this will give us the frequency.

22. 22 Wave frequency Suppose I wiggle a slinky back and forth, and count that 6 waves pass a point in 2 seconds. What would the frequency be? 3 cycles / second 3 Hz we use the term Hertz (Hz) to stand for cycles per second.

23. 23 Wave Period The period describes the same thing as it did with a pendulum. It is the time it takes for one cycle to complete. It also is the reciprocal of the frequency. T = 1 / f f = 1 / T

24. 24 Wave Speed We can use what we know to determine how fast a wave is moving. What is the formula for velocity? velocity = distance / time What distance do we know about a wave wavelength and what time do we know period

25. 25 Wave Speed so if we plug these in we get velocity = length of pulse / time for pulse to move past a fixed point v = / T we will use the symbol to represent wavelength

26. 26 Wave Speed v = / T but what does T equal T = 1 / f so we can also write v = f velocity = frequency * wavelength This is known as the wave equation. examples

27. 14.3 Standing waves A wave that is confined between boundaries is called a standing wave. With all waves, resonance and natural frequency are dependent on reflections from boundaries of the system containing the wave.

28. 14.3 Standing Waves and Harmonics The standing wave with the longest wavelength is called the fundamental. The fundamental has the lowest frequency in a series of standing waves called harmonics. The first three standing wave patterns of a vibrating string shows that patterns occur at multiples of the fundamental frequency.

29. 14.3 Energy and Waves All waves propagate by exchanging energy between two forms. For water and elastic strings, the exchange is between potential and kinetic energy. For sound waves, the energy oscillates between pressure and kinetic energy. In light waves, energy oscillates between electric and magnetic fields.

30. 14.3 Describing Waves Standing waves have nodes and antinodes. A node is a point where the string stays at its equilibrium position. An antinode is a point where the wave is as far as it gets from equilibrium.

31. 31 Wave Behavior Now we know all about waves. How to describe them, measure them and analyze them. But how do they interact?

32. 32 Wave Behavior We know that waves travel through mediums. But what happens when that medium runs out?

33. 33 Boundary Behavior The behavior of a wave when it reaches the end of its medium is called the wave’s BOUNDARY BEHAVIOR. When one medium ends and another begins, that is called a boundary.

34. 34 Fixed End One type of boundary that a wave may encounter is that it may be attached to a fixed end. In this case, the end of the medium will not be able to move. What is going to happen if a wave pulse goes down this string and encounters the fixed end?

35. 35 Fixed End Here the incident pulse is an upward pulse. The reflected pulse is upside-down. It is inverted. The reflected pulse has the same speed, wavelength, and amplitude as the incident pulse.

36. 36 Fixed End Animation

37. 37 Free End Another boundary type is when a wave’s medium is attached to a stationary object as a free end. In this situation, the end of the medium is allowed to slide up and down. What would happen in this case?

38. 38 Free End Here the reflected pulse is not inverted. It is identical to the incident pulse, except it is moving in the opposite direction. The speed, wavelength, and amplitude are the same as the incident pulse.

39. 39 Free End Animation

40. 40 Change in Medium Our third boundary condition is when the medium of a wave changes. Think of a thin rope attached to a thin rope. The point where the two ropes are attached is the boundary. At this point, a wave pulse will transfer from one medium to another. What will happen here?

41. 41 Change in Medium In this situation part of the wave is reflected, and part of the wave is transmitted. Part of the wave energy is transferred to the more dense medium, and part is reflected. The transmitted pulse is upright, while the reflected pulse is inverted.

42. 42 Change in Medium The speed and wavelength of the reflected wave remain the same, but the amplitude decreases. The speed, wavelength, and amplitude of the transmitted pulse are all smaller than in the incident pulse.

43. 43 Change in Medium Animation Test your understanding

44. Next let’s look at the superposition of some simple combinations of two waves. Superposition = overlapping of waves

45. The first addition of waves that will be described involves two waves that are in phase. In Phase = A crest of one wave is positioned with the crest of the other wave. The same can be said for troughs. This is referred to as constructive interference.

46. This represents the displacement by the white wave alone. This represents the displacement by the blue wave alone. Since they are both displacements on the same side of the baseline, they add together. Just repeat this step for several points along the waves.

47. The next addition of waves that will be described involves two waves that are out of phase. Out of phase = A crest of one wave is positioned with a trough of the other wave. This is referred to as destructive interference.

48. This represents the displacement by the white wave alone. This represents the displacement by the bluee wave alone. Since the two displacements are on opposite sides of the baseline, the top one should be considered positive and the bottom one negative. Just add the positive and negatives together like this. Repeat this step for several points along the waves.

49. Finally we observe two waves that are partially in phase. A different method of adding the waves will be demonstrated.

50. By overlaying the constructive interference curve from a previous slide you can tell that the curve of this slide is not fully constructive interference.

51. Interference Animation

52. 52 Wave Interaction All we have left to discover is how waves interact with each other. When two waves meet while traveling along the same medium it is called INTERFERENCE.

53. 53 Constructive Interference Let’s consider two waves moving towards each other, both having a positive upward amplitude. What will happen when they meet?

54. 54 Constructive Interference They will ADD together to produce a greater amplitude. This is known as CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE.

55. 55 Destructive Interference Now let’s consider the opposite, two waves moving towards each other, one having a positive (upward) and one a negative (downward) amplitude. What will happen when they meet?

56. 56 Destructive Interference This time when they add together they will produce a smaller amplitude. This is know as DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE.

57. 57 Check Your Understanding Which points will produce constructive interference and which will produce destructive interference? Constructive G, J, M, N Destructive H, I, K, L, O

58. Waves 2 types of waves Mechanical Use matter to transfer energy through a medium Electromagnetic Do not need matter to transfer energy 58

59. Mechanical Waves Waves that REQUIRE a medium for the energy to travel Examples: water waves, sound waves, energy moving through a slinky. What else? 59

60. Earthquake Waves Earthquakes S wave – Transverse P wave – Longitudinal Surface Waves – can travel along the boundary 60

61. Electromagnetic Waves Waves that DO NOT require a medium for the energy to travel Examples: Light, radio waves, x-rays, gamma rays, etc. All waves on the electromagnetic spectrum 61

62. Electromagnetic Waves These waves do not need matter to travel Difference between the different waves is wavelength EM spectrum illustrates the differences 62

63. Electromagnetic Waves Radio – listen to your favorite station Microwaves – call your friends Infrared – night vision Visible – you can see this presentation Ultraviolet – tanning X-ray – see broken bones Gamma – kill cancerous cells 63

64. Properties of Waves Diffraction Interference Reflection Refraction 64

65. Diffraction Waves spread out and bend around corners within the same medium. 1) Water waves bending around islands 2) Water waves passing through a slit and spreading out 65

66. Diffraction Diffraction depends on the size of the obstacle or opening compared to the wavelength of the wave. 66 Less occurs if wavelength is smaller than the object. More occurs if wavelength is larger than the object.

67. Diffraction AM radio waves are longer and can diffract around large buildings and mountains; FM can’t. 67

68. Interference Interference - two or more waves overlapping to form a new wave. 68

69. Constructive Interference Constructive (in phase) Sound waves that constructively interfere are louder 69

70. Destructive Interference Destructive (out of phase) Sound waves that destructively interfere are not as loud 70

71. Interference 71

72. Reflection Reflection - the bouncing back of a wave. 1) Sound echoes 2) Light images in mirrors 72

73. Refraction Refraction - the bending of a wave caused by a change in speed as the wave moves from one medium to another. 73

74. Mirage A mirage is caused from refraction 74

75. Sound Sound is a mechanical wave (requires a medium to travel) and a compressional wave (molecules colliding) The medium sound travels through are molecules when they collide Caused by the vibration of a medium No medium; no sound. 75

76. Sound A tuning fork vibrates It is vibrating, we hear the sound it produces But frequency is so high, we cannot actually see the vibration. 76

77. Sound Waves 77

78. Sound Often called pressure waves Vibration produces areas of higher pressure These changes in pressure are recorded by the ear drum 78

79. Sound We hear frequencies of sound as having different pitch. High frequency means more vibrations hitting the ear. Pitch is how high or how low a sound seems to be. Healthy humans can hear from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz We are most sensitive from 440 Hz to 7,000 Hz. 79

80. Ultrasonic and Infrasonic Sound Ultrasonic sound has a frequency greater than 20,000 Hz. Dogs (up to 35,000 Hz) Bats (over 100,000 Hz) Infrasonic sound has a frequency below 20 Hz; they are felt rather than heard earthquakes, heavy machinery 80

81. Loudness Loudness – sensation of intensity Measured by the amplitude of the wave Intensity depends on the energy in a sound wave. Loudness is human perception of intensity. 81

82. Loudness Relative to surroundings and intensity Intensity – power per unit area Humans can detect intensities as low as 10 -12 W/m 2 The threshold of pain is 1 W/m 2 82

83. Intensity of Sound Sound intensity is usually measured in decibels (dB) Sound level is given as I – intensity of the sound I 0 – threshold of hearing (10 -12 W/m 2 )  – sound level in dB Some common relative intensities 83

84. 84

85. Speed of Sound The speed of sound depends on the medium it is in, and the temperature For air, it is calculated as 85

86. Speed of Sound The speed of sound has to do with the temperature, density, and the elasticity of the medium, so sound travels faster in solids and liquids than it does in air. 86 Speeds for sound: Air, 0 °C: 331 m/s Air, 20 °C: 343 m/s Water, 25 °C: 1493 m/s Iron: 5130 m/s Glass (Pyrex): 5640 m/s Diamond: 12 000 m/s

87. Speed of Sound Sound travels better through high-density materials The closer the molecules are together, the faster they can collide and transfer energy 87

88. Echo An echo is when a sound wave hits a hard surface and bounces back, causing you to hear the sound a second time Sonar uses echoes. It is a measure of how long it takes the echo to return to the source of the sound. Sonar can tell you how far an object is from you. 88

89. Doppler Effect Doppler Effect – the change in pitch due to the relative motion between a source of sound and the receiver Objects moving toward you have a higher apparent frequency Objects moving away have a lower apparent frequency 89

90. Doppler Effect The general equation is f d = observed frequency of the detector f s = original frequency of the source v= velocity of sound in air at the T given v d = velocity of the detector v s = velocity of the source * The direction of the source will always be the positive direction. 90

91. 91

92. Ex. The horn is producing a pure 1000 Hz tone. Let’s find the frequency as heard by the listener in various motion scenarios. The speed of sound in air at 20 o C is 343 m/s. A) The horn is traveling toward the source at 10 m/s and the detector is standing still B) The horn is standing still and the detector is moving toward the horn at 10 m/s. C) Both the detector and the horn are moving in the same direction. The horn is traveling at 10 m/s and the detector is traveling at 3 m/s. 92

93. Acoustics Acoustics is the science of sound. The Great Hall in the Krannert Center is an example of excellent acoustics. Note how the walls and ceiling are beveled to get sound waves reflect in different directions. This minimizes the odds of there being a “dead spot” somewhere in the audience. 93

94. Resonance Resonance - the ability of an object to vibrate by absorbing energy at its natural frequency. 94

95. Closed Pipe Resonators Vibrations in an closed end tube (one end closed one open) The closed end will always begin with a node and the open end will produce a louder sound when an antinode is present at the open end. Antinodes will also be present at every ¼ of a wavelength. 95

96. Closed Pipe Resonators Musical instruments such as the clarinet, the hanging pipes under the marimbas, and xylophones are closed pipe resonators. 96

97. Open Pipe Resonators Vibrations in an open ended tube (both ends) At each end there is an antinode The difference in each antinode is ½ wavelength. Antinodes occur at every ½ wavelength 97

98. Open Pipe Resonators Open ended tubes produce all harmonics – all whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency Musical instruments such as flutes and saxophones are open ended resonators. 98